Transcript FINAL EXAM!!!

FINAL EXAM!!!
December 17, 2005
12 pm – 3 pm
TERM PAPER!!

Due next week
 10 pages MAX, including title and refs.
Part 1
Schooling and Cognition

Reading / Writing
– Dyslexia
Math / ‘rithmatic
 Effects of school on cognition

Schooling and Cognition

These are skills that are taught
 School curriculum

http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/elementary/grade1.html

Primary 1st accomplishment in school is
learning to read…
Reading

Chall’s 5 stages:
0. Before grade 1; recognize some words,
letters, know a few sounds
1. 1st year of formal reading instruction,
phonological training
2. 2nd and 3rd grades, improving reading skills
3. Grades 4-8, now use reading to learn
4. High school, are now very proficient readers
2 themes in reading acquisition
1.
2.
The centrality of reading comprehension
as the goal of reading
Need for efficient word identification so
that sufficient processing resources are
available for comprehension
* Remember Case’s theory? Try to find the
common ground!
Reading…

Prerequisites to word recognition:
– Emergent literacy (9 principles or facets)
– Letter knowledge and letter perception
– Phonological awareness
9 Principles of Emergent Literacy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Language
Conventions of print
Knowledge of letters
Linguistic awareness
Grapheme-Phoneme correspondence
Emergent reading: pretend reading
Emergent writing: pretend writing
Print motivation: child’s interest
Other cognitive skills: e.g. memory, attentional
control
Reading

Some knowledge absorbed effortlessly…

2 most difficult to learn:
– Discriminating among letters
– Dividing words into component sounds
Letter Knowledge

Once they learn features of letters, must
notice orientation

Letter reading in Kindergarten predicts later
reading ability
Phonological Awareness

Children unaware of sounds in language
even after almost 4 years of using it

Phoneme awareness can be measured at
onset or rime level, or at phonemic level…
Example of Phonological Awareness
Tasks
Phoneme segmentation
1.
•
How many sounds make up the word h/o/t?
Phoneme deletion and substitution
2.
•
•
If you take the /m/ sound from mat, what word is left?
Take the /c/ sound from cat, and instead put in the /m/
sounds. What word is it?
Same/different judgments
3.
•
•
Plea and Plank? (onset)
Spit and Wit? (rime)
Typical Findings

4 and 5 year olds are not good at picking
apart words
– fail segmentation, deletion and blending tasks.
– Can judge words as same or different at onset-
rime level but not at phoneme level (e.g.
plea/prank)
Typical findings

By 6 (grade 1), ceiling on most PA tasks
 This awareness seems to be related to the
fact that they are getting instruction in
language sounds
 How does phonological awareness help?
The Rhyme Hypothesis

Phonological skills at the onset-rime level
might be important for progress in English
reading
 Very transparent languages (e.g. German,
Spanish) do not require it
PARENTAL
INTEREST IN
READING
EARLY INTEREST
IN READING
EARLY LETTER
KNOWLEDGE
EXPOSURE TO
RHYME
PRACTICE WITH SOUNDS
AT ONSET/RIME LEVEL
LATER READING SKILLS
Rhyme / Reading Relationship

Evidence that knowledge of nursery rhymes
can help phonological awareness
 Predicts later reading better than age, IQ,
and mother’s education level
Little Miss Muffett
Little Miss Muffet
Sat on a Tuffet
Eating her curds and whey
Along came a spider
And sat down beside her
And frightened Miss Muffett
away
Charming rhyme helps
children remember words,
and as a result, become
more aware of the sounds
PA important for reading!
1.
2.
3.
Strong link between rhyme awareness and
English reading, even with IQ controlled
for
Reading disabled children have problems
with rhymes
Training children with rhymes will
improve reading (group words that sound
alike together, like bat, mat, hat, cat)
PARENTAL
INTEREST IN
READING
EARLY INTEREST
IN READING
EARLY LETTER
KNOWLEDGE
EXPOSURE TO
RHYME
PRACTICE WITH SOUNDS
AT ONSET/RIME LEVEL
LATER READING SKILLS
Reading/identifying words

2 processes:
– Phonological Recoding
– Visually-based retrieval

Examine printed word, and locate meaning in
LTM
 Recoding = extra step: translate visual information
into speech code, and use this to identify word
 Recoding (phonics) is heavily used in classrooms,
although both methods have been shown to work
Phonological Recoding



Drill children on sounds and sounding out
words (see spot run)
Eventually become familiar
Can start to use visually-based word
recognition
Sounding out
Using memory
Visually-Based Recognition

Use more sources to aid in faster word
recognition in a parallel process, such as:
– Context
– Info from letters individually
– Info from whole word
All allow for quick and effortless word
identification!
Context
Influences word recognition from 1st year of
instruction
 Mistakes made in reading are relevant to
context

Siegler’s Adaptive Strategy Choice
Model for Word identification

Children will use recognition when they can
– (with a great deal of contextual support)

Harder words are read with a more “overt”
process, like sounding out word
40
20
0
Strategy 1
Strategy 2
Strategy 3
Reading Disabilities

Dyslexia:
– Problems in coding, manipulation, and comprehension
of the sounds of spoken words

Becomes evident around 5 or 6
 Have other, concomitant problems: Temporal
auditory processing difficulties, balance issues,
non-letter visual processing problems
 Source of difficulty unknown – important for
treatment purposes
Pammer & Vidyasagar, 2005

Theoretical proposal for dyslexia:
– Rel’ship btw reading and PA is an interaction
– Reading requires synthesis of both auditory and
visual information
– If these are not in sync, system never gets to
practice interaction of PA and letter recognition
– Different subtypes of dyslexia may result from
different levels of impairment at each source
Visual contributions to dyslexia

Magno-cellular pathway (smaller part of
visual pathway) responsible for early, fast
processing of motion and low contrast
 Impairment in this system = difficulty
visually coding parts of word
http://www.lea-test.fi/en/assessme/comenius/pathways.html
Auditory contributions to dyslexia

Dyslexics have difficulty differentiation
rapid, sequential sounds, discriminating
tones
 Often have early delayed language
development

Problems arise when these children attempt
to synthesize sight and sound!
Precocious Readers


Some 2 and 3 year olds read…why? How?
Characteristics of these kids:
1. High, but not exceptional IQ
2. Reciting alphabet by 3
3. Identifying signs by 3
4. Reading simple books by 4
5. Can read new words by 5
Precocious Readers con’d

Children very interested in reading, word
meaning; main source of precocity
 Parents have books, blackboards out all the
time
 From middle to upper class families
Teaching reading

1.
2.
3.
2 viewpoints: listen, and ask yourself
What processes are important for reading?
Where should educators put efforts?
How can we help children who are having
trouble reading?
(whole-word processes)
Top-Down Processes
Context
Prior knowledge
Must deal with novelty
Must know meaning of word
sounded out
Can’t ignore importance of
both to reading!
Phonological Awareness
Bottom-Up Processes
(phonological processes)
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange
items into different groups. Of course one pile may be
sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have
to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next
step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to
overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once
rather than too many. In the short run this may not seem
important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can
be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem
complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet
of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity of this
task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell.
After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials
into their appropriate places. Eventually, they will be used
once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated.
However, that is part of life.
DOING LAUNDRY
Bransford and Johnson, 1972
Comprehension

4 processes in comprehension:
– Lexical access: identify words
– Proposition assembly: figure out
parts of text
– Proposition integration: put them
together
– Text modeling: Drawing inferences
and relating it to what is known
Comprehension con’d

Things that help us with comprehension in
particular
– Automatization of lexical access
– Greater working memory capacity
– Expanded knowledge base
– Better comprehension monitoring
– Increasingly adaptive strategy choice
Reading is not one thing, it’s many –
need to control many resources to do it well!
Number and Math Abilities

Must understand some basic
concepts of numbers, like
conservation
Number Conservation Problem
Which line has more dots?
Have to understand they are the same
5 basic number principles
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The one-to-one principle
The Stable-order principle
The cardinal principle
The abstraction principle
The order-irrelevant principle
3 Types of competence needed to do
math problems

Procedural: solving problems through
sequences of action (how?)
 Conceptual: Understanding the principles
that underlie these sequences (why?)
 Utilizational: Know the right time for taking
these actions (when?)
Very early math strategies

Children will use many strategies to solve
basic adding problems:
– Sum strategy:
 3 + 4 = 1, 2, 3 on one hand, 1,2,3,4 on
other,1,2,3,4,5,6,7….7!
– Min strategy::
 3 + 4 = 4 plus 5,6,7 on hand, = 7!
Strategies…

For Subtracting:
– Count down from larger # (e.g. 12 – 3)
– Count up (e.g. 12 – 9)

For multiplication:
– Retrieval from memory
– Count out how many of each # they need, using
hatch marks…
Strategies change with experience, esp. towards
memory retrieval
Adaptive Strategy Choice Model



1.
2.
Child chooses between memory retrieval
and back-up strategy
Will pick fastest one that they will do right
2 processes involved in this model:
Representation of knowledge about a
particular problem
Process operating on this knowledge to
produce performance
Associative strength
How model works:
Problem: 1 + 2 = 3
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Confidence criterion set at
0.2
1
2
3
4
5
Answer
6
7
8
ASCM

Each answer associated with a strength
– e.g. 3+4 = 6 has a strength of .19

Confidence is based on distribution of
strengths for a given answer
 Child will set a confidence criterion, which
is a threshold that must be exceeded by
associative strength of retrieved answer for
that answer to be given
Associative Strength
Less peaked distribution:
Problem: 3 + 4 = 6
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Confidence criterion set at
0.2
1
2
3
4
5
Answer
Weight
6
7
8
ASCM

More peaked distribution = More likely to
use
 Every time they give an answer, association
between problem and answer strengthens
– Kids who do this better at retrieval

1 + 2 can have more peaked distribution due
to frequent finger counting, whereas 3 +11
will not
Try to apply similar ASCM principles to reading strategies!
Math…

Understanding certain arithmetic principles
will help us solve problems faster, like
knowing:
– A+B–B
– A*0
– A/1
Context

Context and wording affect how problems
are solved:
– Joe has 23 marbles. He has 7 more marbles than
Bill had yesterday before he gave Joe half his
marbles. How many fewer marbles does Bill
have today than yesterday?
Math Bugs

Consistent errors that always result in a
mistake, but hard to identify
 Kids make these up when at an Impasse,
where knowledge is not sufficient to
complete problem
 Job of teachers is to identify the bug
Math in class: Math Bugs

Find the bug:
307
-182
285
856
-699
157
606
-568
168
308
-287
181
835
-217
618
Programs like this presented to teachers make them more
likely to pick up errors children are making, and help them
fix these errors
Effects of schooling

Some things are greatly enhanced by
education (rote reading, math problem
solving)
 Some things develop on their own: story
recall, arithmetic strategies, vocabulary
 1 year of school has more cognitive benefits
than 1 year of age
 Schooling influences IQ