Transcript EDUC8631 Approaches to Research

Sessions 9, 10, 11, 12
Qualitative Research
Session outline
• What is qualitative research?
• Research designs
Session 9 Introduction to
Qualitative research
• In groups of 3, share your information about
‘thick description’
• Prepare a summary of key points
Thick description
Clifford Geertz (1926-2006)
His oft-cited essay, "Deep Play: Notes on the
Balinese Cockfight 1973," is the classic example
of thick description. Thick description is
anthropological practice of explaining with as
much detail as possible the reason behind
human actions.
At the University of Chicago, Geertz became a
champion of symbolic anthropology, a
framework which gives prime attention to the
role of symbols in constructing public meaning.
In his seminal work The Interpretation of Cultures
(1973), Geertz outlined culture as "a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic
forms by means of which people
communicate, perpetuate, and develop their
knowledge about and attitudes toward life"
What is qualitative research?
Qualitative research is a type of scientific
research that:
• seeks answers to a question
• systematically uses a set of procedures to
answer the question
• collects evidence
• produces findings that were not determined in
advance
• produces findings that are applicable beyond
the immediate boundaries of the study
Qualitative research
• seeks to understand a given research problem
or topic from the perspectives of the local
population it involves
• is especially effective in obtaining culturally
specific information about the values, opinions,
behaviors, and social contexts of particular
populations
Reading
‘At the edge of the silent centre...’ (Wildy &
Clarke, 2010)
1. What can you learn from reading this piece?
2. How might the data that inform this piece
have been collected?
3. Is it research?
Qualitative Research
• Seeks to explore phenomena
• Instruments use flexible, iterative style of eliciting and categorizing
responses to questions
• Use semi-structured methods such as in-depth interviews, focus groups,
and participant observation
– To describe variation
– To describe and explain relationships
– To describe individual experiences
– To describe group norms
• Open-ended
• Textual (obtained from audiotapes, videotapes, and field notes)
• Flexibility (the addition, exclusion or wording of interview questions)
• Participant responses affect how and which questions researchers ask
next
• Study design is iterative - data collection and research questions are
adjusted according to what is learned
Advantages of qualitative methods
for exploratory research
1. Open-ended
questions and probing give participants the
opportunity to respond in their own words, rather than forcing
them to choose from fixed responses
2. Open-ended questions evoke responses that are:
• meaningful and culturally salient to the participant
• unanticipated
• rich and explanatory
3. The researcher has the flexibility to probe initial participant
responses – to ask why or how. The researcher engages with
the participant according to their individual personalities and
styles, and use “probes” to encourage them to elaborate on
their answers.
What can we learn from qualitative
research?
• complex textual descriptions of how people
experience a given research issue
• the “human” side of an issue – the often
contradictory behaviours, beliefs, opinions,
emotions, and relationships of individuals
• intangible factors, such as social norms,
socioeconomic status, gender roles, ethnicity,
and religion, whose role in the research issue
may not be readily apparent.
The steps in designing a
qualitative study
1.
Establish the general problem/aim to be
addressed
2.
Establishing a conceptual/theoretical
framework for the study
3.
Posing general and specific research questions
4.
Deciding who will participate in the study
(sampling methods)
5.
Deciding on an appropriate qualitative
research design
6.
Consider issues of quality: e.g., trustworthiness
7.
Decide on data collection methods and
establish data collection protocols
8.
Manage, analyse and interpret data
9.
Write up findings
Research designs
The Case Study
• Focuses on individual cases and what can be learned
from an in-depth analysis of these
• The definition of a ‘case’ can vary significantly – this can
be, for example:
– A single teacher
– A school of teachers
– A school district
• In a typical single case study, only one example is
studied to investigate a phenomenon of interest
• In a collective case study, several examples are studied
to investigate a phenomenon (allows cross-case
comparisons)
Ethnography (Participant
Observation/Naturalistic Inquiry)
• Complete observer
– Behind one-way mirror, invisible role
• Observer as participant
– Known, overt observer
• Participant as observer
– Pseudo-member, research role known
• Complete participant
– Full membership, research role not known (eg
Bryn Roberts PhD)
Action Research
• Generally grounded in professional practice
• Primary goal is to improve practice, develop
effective interventions, and promote and
evaluate change processes
• Is done in a cyclical manner – alternating
phases of action and reflection: both doing
and inquiring
Grounded Theory
• Focuses on development of theory based on
data systematically collected and analysed
• Constant comparative analysis used in deriving
theory based on cases
• Aim is to develop generalisable theory throught
multiple comparisons across situations
Session 10 Sampling
Session outline
• Sampling in qualitative research
• Data collection in qualitative research
Considerations in sampling
• In deciding on sampling method
– Depth of analysis versus breadth (across
people/cases)
– Rich understanding of a specific context rather
than generalising to a population
• Based on conceptual rather than statistical
power issues
• The notion of purposive sampling
Purposive Sampling Strategies
• Heterogenous samples
– Sample diverse cases with diverse characteristics with
goal of exploring common patterns
• Homogenous samples
– Obtain similar cases to obtain an in-depth
understanding of a particular group
• ‘Deviant’ samples
– Focus on cases that are unusual in some identified way
(e.g. very high level leaders)
• Typical case samples
– Attempt to elucidate what is typical in a given context
or setting
Sampling types
• Purposive
• Convenience
• Quota
• Snowballing
Sample size in Qualitative Research
• An effective sample is not determined by size,
but by:
– Saturation
– Redundancy
• Aim to obtain small samples to provide a sound
basis for studying the phenomenon of interest
Data collection methods
• The interview
Interviewing
• Interviews allow researchers to
– Explore participants’ perspectives in their own
terms
– Inquire about the meaning people attach to
certain events
• Interviews can be:
– Informal – conversational (handout)
– Structured - fixed-response
– Semi-structured
What makes a good interview?
Brainstorm the actions of interviewer and those
of interviewee that make for a good interview
• Role of interviewer
• Role of interviewee
Probing
What are some effective probes?
• Direct probes
• Indirect probes
Interview
In groups of three, take turns to be
– Interviewer
– Interviewee
– Observer
Roles
Interviewer seeks to understand the research
interest of the interviewee, especially the
research question
Observer gives feedback to both interviewer
and interviewee on their roles
• In pairs, help each other to generate at least 3
different ways of exploring your research topic
• Consider alternative research questions
• Write notes on what you have learned about
the art and craft of interviewing
Session 11
Session outline
• More data collection
– Observation
– Focus group discussions
– Document review
• Data analysis
• Data representation
Observation
• Purpose of observation
– Describe the context
– See what is spoken about first hand
– Confirm reports of respondents
• Requires training, preparation and discipline
• Develop an observation checklist
• Observation as:
– as outsider - unobtrusive
– participant observation
• Includes what is not seen
• Generates field notes (narratives: eg drug
rehabilitation)
Focus Group Discussions
• Advantages
– Efficient/Cost-effective
– Quality of data enhanced by group
participants(?)
– Can quickly assess the extent to which there is
agreement or diversity on an issue
• Limitations
– Limits number of questions that can be posed
– May minimise responses made by each
participant
– Minority views may not be heard
– Confidentiality cannot assured
– Requires significant group process skills
– Explores broad themes, not subtle
– Views are mediated by group members
Document review
• Obtain access to key documents and records
at the outset
• Documents can help to establish what needs
to be pursued through other methods (e.g.,
direct observation, interviews)
• Consider whether the documents are public –
ethical issues
• Examples: minutes of meetings, brochures,
school reports, school websites
What forms do qualitative data
take?
Types of data are
• field notes
• audio (and sometimes video) recordings
• transcripts
Stages in qualitative data analysis
• Qualitative data analysis is an iterative process,
involving several rounds of reflecting, analysing,
theorising, and verifying
• During data collection
– Reading – data immersion – reading and rereading
– Coding – listen to the data for emerging themes
and begin to attach labels or codes to the texts
that represent the themes
• After data collection
– Displaying – the themes (all information)
– Developing hunches, questioning and checking
– Reducing – from the displayed data identify the
main points
• Interpretation (2 levels)
– At all stages – searching for core meanings of
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours described
– Overall interpretation
• Identify how themes relate to each other
• Explain how study questions are answered
• Explain what the findings mean beyond the context
of your study
• Representation of data
– Themes, illustrated by data
– Tables, schemes, models, diagrams, frameworks
– Narratives
Processes in qualitative data analysis
1. Reading / Data immersion
–
Read for content
•
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Identify emergent themes and pose tentative
explanations
Read identifying patterns
- After identifying themes, examine how these are
patterned
2. Coding
–
Building theme related files
3. Displaying data
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Capture the variation or richness of each theme
Take note of any differences between individuals
and sub-groups
Return to the data and examine evidence that
supports each sub-theme
4. Developing hunches, questioning and
checking
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Extract meaning from the data
Do the categories developed make sense?
What pieces of information are missing or
underdeveloped?
What other opinions should be taken into account?
How do my own biases influence the data collection
and analysis process?
5.
Data representation
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6.
Make visible the most essential concepts and
relationships and provide overall sense of the
data
Distinguish main and sub- themes
Separate essential from non-essential data
Use visual devices – e.g. matrices, diagrams
Interpretation
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Identify core meaning of the data
Attributed meanings should be credible:
•
•
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Consistent with data collected
Verified with respondents
Present multiple perspectives (convergent and
divergent views)
Activity
• Read three short narratives
• Select one to share with a colleagues in terms
of
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place
actions
point of view
message
Narrative writing
• Narratives or narrative accounts are one
method of representing qualitative data
• Benefits:
– provide context (opposite of
decontextualisation)
– show interrelationships (opposite of
fragmentation)
– illustrate complexity (opposite of reductionism)
– give ‘voice’ to participants (rather than the
‘impersonal’ and ‘neutral’ researcher
– serve as metaphors
– stay in the memory
Session 12 Conceptual
frameworks
Conceptual framework
• A representation (diagram, description) of the
main concepts and their relationships
• Helps clarify
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Where you are coming from
Your assumptions
Your research focus
The appropriateness of your design
Click here for full sized version of the image
Conceptual Framework
Knowledge of Learner
Candidates’ understanding of the learner which is necessary to
provide effective and equitable instruction
Conceptual frameworks are usually less
common in qualitative research but can be
useful
(handout)
Session 12 Trustworthiness in
qualitative research
Criteria for judging the quality and
credibility of qualitative research
• General criteria :
– Data collection and analysis methods well
justified and suited to research question/s posed
– Alternative possibilities are considered, such as:
• Plausible alternative themes or explanations are
discussed
• Negative cases are analysed in depth to establish
the basis for their abberrant status
• Triangulation (crystalisation) –divergent sources
of information
– Methods (interviews, observations, document
analysis)
– Sources (different teachers, or teachers with
other school staff)
– Theoretical frameworks (different assumptions to
identify any inconsistencies in developed
theories)
• Member check– ask participants to confirm
transcripts/analyses
Debate preparation
• Set up teams
• Identify speakers
• Prepare arguments for/against
• Topic: ‘That qualitative research is better than
quantitative research’