Transcript Lisbon conference

Two-Way Bilingual Education
Conserving and Developing
Language Resources
James Crawford
Institute for Language and Education Policy
www.elladvocates.org
February 21, 2008
Bilingual Education
Key Factors to Consider

Student characteristics
– academic & language skills
– sociolinguistic patterns

School capacity
– research knowledge
– program design
– staff qualifications

Language attitudes
– parent & community support
– government policies
Politics vs. Pedagogy
American Contradictions

Research increasingly shows benefits of
bilingual education
– academic, linguistic, social, economic

Policies are moving toward monolingual,
English Only education
– anti-immigrant politics on the rise

Despite decline, bilingual education remains
widespread, relative to most countries
– 15% of 5m English learners vs. 37% in 1992
English Language Learners
A Growing Population, 1992-2006
5.5
(millions)
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
'92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06
Source: NCELA (2007)
Bilingual Education in U.S.
Declining Enrollments, 1992-2006
BE
Non-BE
90
(percentages)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1991-92
2001-02
2005-06*
*Estimate; Source: Zehler et al. (2003)
Language Policies
U.S. Attitudes toward Diversity

Pretend that it doesn’t exist
– “sink or swim” treatment – no special help

See it as temporary problem
– “transitional” bilingual education

Treat it as a threat
– English Only requirements in several states

Recognize it as a resource
– “developmental” and two-way bilingual education
Immigration & Language
Recent Growth
U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1960 – 2006
14
12.5
11.1
(percentage)
12
10
7.9
8
6
6.2
5
4.7
1960
1970
4
2
0
1980
1990
2000
2006
Immigration & Language
Historic Patterns
(percentage)
U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1850 – 2006
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2006
Language Diversity
Contradictory Trends

Rapid increase in speakers of non-English
languages
– 400+ languages reported in 2000 Census
– immigration is main factor in growth in minoritylanguage speakers, especially Spanish

Rapid acquisition of English by immigrants
– Anglicization at record rates, historically
– rapid loss of heritage languages
Demographic Change
Increasing Bilingualism, 1980 – 2006
Speakers of Languages Other Than English at Home and
English-Speaking Ability (percentages, age 5+)
1980
1990
2000
2006 Change
English only
89.0
86.2
82.1
80.3
Other language
11.0
13.8
17.9
19.6 +138%
Speaks English “very well”
6.1
7.8
9.8
10.9 +138%
… less than “very well”
4.8
6.1
8.1
8.7 +138%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau
+20%
Language Usage
Second-Generation Immigrant Youth
English & Heritage-Language Proficiency
Ages 13-15 (percentages)
Knows English
Knows HL
Prefers
English
Well
Very
Well
Well
Very
Well
Latin American
94.7
65.1
60.6
21.4
71.0
Asian, Pacific
90.3
57.9
20.1
8.8
73.6
Other
99.0
84.2
33.7
7.8
83.5
Total
93.6
64.1
44.3
16.1
72.3
Source: Portes & Hao (2002)
Bilingual Education
Historic Evolution

Widespread in 19th century America
– authorized by law in 12 states, including Ohio
(1839), Louisiana (1847)
– non-English groups had local majorities
– 1900: 4% in German-English

Rationale
– language, cultural maintenance
– English-speaking teachers unavailable

Mostly eliminated by 1919
– coercive assimilation, immigration restriction
– English-only instruction laws
Bilingual Education
Modern Era

1967: Bilingual Education Act
– civil-rights basis
– “transitional” goals: English, academics in English

1974: Lau v. Nichols decision
– addressing diverse needs
– trial and error in program design

1980s: “developmental” bilingual education
– goals: academics in English, bilingualism/biliteracy
– research found superior results

1990s: rapid growth of two-way models
Research
Findings on 2nd Language Acquisition

‘Comprehensible input’ hypothesis (Krashen)
– use of L2 for communication vs. sink or swim

Interdependence hypothesis (Cummins)
– L1 supports L2
– transfer of knowledge & skills

Academic language, conversational language
– 4-9 years for L2 learners to catch up
– ‘age on arrival’ studies
Which Programs Work Best?
Findings of 3 Major Reviews

Bilingual models are consistently more
effective than all-English models
– the more rigorous the study, the more positive
effects for bilingual programs

Larger positive effects are documented in
‘developmental’ bilingual education
– one-way & two-way support English, heritage
language, AND academic achievement in English
– bilingualism & biliteracy
Sources: Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass (2005), Slavin & Cheung (2005),
August & Shanahan (2006)
Evolution of Two-Way BE
Program Experience in Canada, U.S.

French immersion
– English speakers in Quebec
– alternative to traditional foreign-language teaching
– goal: fluent bilingualism at no cost to academics

Developmental (one-way) bilingual education
– ‘gradual exit’ model for language-minority students
– goal: academic progress at no cost to bilingualism

Two-way bilingual models
– 90/10 vs. 50/50 use of languages
Growth of Two-Way BE
1962 – 2007
Profile of Two-Way BE
Program Data

Relatively few programs
– 332 in entire U.S., most in elementary schools
– Spanish, French, Korean, Cantonese, Mandarin,
Navajo, Japanese, German

Students
– no enrollment data; estimate: 50-75,000
– class differences between majority/minority speakers

Sociolinguistic context
– bilingual homes, communities
– English-dominant communities
Profile of Two-Way BE
Program Variations

90/10 or 80/20 model
– minority language for academics in early years
– English phased in to 50/50 by year 4 or 5

50/50 model
– parent concerns
– parity of languages in all grades

Language arts instruction
– heterogeneous grouping: some programs separate
groups for L1 language-arts classes

Teachers
– in 50% of programs, teachers are fully bilingual
– most alternate between classes, maximizing staff
Research on Two-Way BE
Limited Data

Few conclusive studies
– most do not control for socioeconomic variables
– selection bias

Promising results
– minority language speakers do well academically,
acquire native-like English
– English speakers excel academically but may reach
less than native-like oral proficiency in L2
– no clear advantage for 90/10 or 50/50 for minority
group; 90/10 superior for majority group
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Student Outcomes

Academic achievement
– superior for language-majority but lag in L1
– relative advantage for language minority group

Bilingualism, biliteracy
– oral proficiency gains greater for minority group

Positive attitudes toward cultural diversity
– also: toward target language, other language group

For minority language group:
– greater self-esteem, academic expectations
– fewer identity conflicts
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Challenges

Making instruction comprehensible
– varying L2 proficiency, academic level
– ‘immersion,’ sheltered instruction

Ensuring parent/community support
– explaining program goals
– responding to misunderstandings, fears,
prejudices

Dealing with power relationships
– serving both groups equitably
– ensuring equal status of languages
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Long-term approach
– 4-6 years to achieve goals

Parity of languages, language groups
– at least 50% usage of minority language
– peer models
– maximizing interaction among language
groups
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Additive bilingual environment
– ‘empowerment’ approach
– respect for both languages
– languages as resources
– cooperative learning, group work
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Professional development of staff
– planning/training year
– theories of second-language acquisition
– language education pedagogy
– assessment
– partnerships with institutions, experts
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Curriculum & instruction
– challenging academically
– tailored to students’ language level
– teachers with native-like proficiency
– L2 taught primarily through academics,
combined with some direct instruction
– initial literacy in minority language
– L1 language arts
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Assessment
– authentic, understood by staff
– academic vs. language assessment
– multiple indicators
– diagnostic role for individual students
– serves program planning, goals
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Effective leadership
– training in theory, pedagogy
– staff support, coordination
– planning, curriculum development
– integration within larger school
– ambassador for program to parents,
communities
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Parent involvement
– program goals, expectations
– student performance data
– out-of-school support
– resolving conflicts
Two-Way Bilingual Education
Principles for Success

Program evaluation
– monitoring student progress
– rectifying mistakes
– considering parent/community views
– redesigning program
Bilingualism
Benefits for Individuals

Cognitive advantages
– metalinguistic awareness
– executive control, working memory
– limiting effects of aging

Career opportunities
– need for bilingual skills, higher incomes

Social adjustment
– identity construction, educational aspirations

Family relationships
– minimizing conflicts
Bilingualism
Benefits for Society

Economic edge
– trade, development assistance

Cultural vitality
– enhancing arts, learning, expression

Ethnic harmony
– protecting rights, limiting conflicts

National security
– dealing with a dangerous world

Global understanding
– climate change, public health, education
Resources
Institute for Language and Education Policy
www.elladvocates.org
Center for Applied Linguistics
www.cal.org/twi
California Association for Bilingual Education
www.bilingualeducation.org/2waycabe
Dual Language of New Mexico
www.dlenm.org