Transcript What distinguishes a plant cell from other cells?

2014-2015
The Microscope
TRANSPORT &
MAKE
MEMBRANES
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
CHLOROPLAST
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(SER & RER)
FORM SPINDLE
IN ANIMAL
CELLS
PACKAGING IN
MEMBRANES
CENTRIOLES
GOLGI APPARATUS
INSTRUCTIONS
FOR CELL
REGULATE WHAT
ENTERS THE CELL
MAKE
RIBOSOMES
PLASMA MEMBRANE
NUCLEUS & NUCLEOLUS
ASSEMBLE PROTEINS
STRUCTURE
CYTOSKELETON: MICROFIBERS & MICROTUBULES
RIBOSOME
CELLULAR DIGESTION
SUPPORT
LYSOSOME
CELL WALL
ENERGY
THROUGH
RESPIRATION
STORAGE & CLEANUP
VACUOLE
MITOCHONDRION
Animal Cell
Plant Cell
Plant cells:
One large vacuole
Eukaryotic
Autotrophic
Have cell walls
made of cellulose
Have chloroplasts with
chlorophyll for photosynthesis
Form a cell plate during
cytokinesis in the cell cycle
What distinguishes a plant cell
from most other cells?
Nucleus? All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus with a
nuclear membrane
Most cells except for prokaryotic bacteria
Mitochondria?
have mitochondria for energy through the
process of respiration
Cell Wall? Plant cells, bacteria, and fungi have cell walls
DNA?
DNA is universal to all forms of life
Plant cells and some autotrophic Protists
Chloroplasts? have chloroplasts for the process of
Photosynthesis
Cellulose?
Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose
What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis?
6O2 + C6H12O6
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
What type of cells would most likely
have a lot of mitochondria?
Muscle tissue
sperm
Requires cellular energy to move ions and
large particles into and out of cells:
endocytosis, exocytosis, protein pumps.
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Does not require cellular energy.
Moves molecules DOWN a gradient: lipid
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion.
summary
DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS
DIFFUSION: Movement of particles
in a fluid from an area of high
concentration to an area of lower
concentration = down the gradient.
OSMOSIS: movement of water across a
semipermeable membrane from an
area of higher concentration of water to
an area of lower concentration of water.
Cellular Tonicity
CARBOHYDRATES
Polymers of
subunits of
simple sugars
Quick energy
LIPIDS
• Long term storage
for energy
• Insulation
• Plasma membrane
structure
PROTEINS
Polymers of
amino acid
subunits
joined by
peptide
bonds and
then folded
into structure
ENZYMES
examples:
Helicase
Polymerase
Primase
Ligase
An enzyme is a protein
formed by the body that
acts as a catalyst to cause a
certain desired reaction.
Enzymes bind a substrate in
a particular orientation and
chemical environment and
assist the transformation of
the substrate into a
product.
Enzymes are very specific.
Most
end in –
“ase”
Enzymes bind a substrate in
a particular orientation and
chemical environment and
assist the transformation of
the substrate into a
product.
The enzyme
can then be
reused.
Enzymes are important because practically every
process in the cell requires an enzyme to occur
at a useful rate.
ENZYMES LOWER THE ACTIVATION ENERGY
ENZYMES SPEED UP THE RATE
OF THE REACTION
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Deoxyribonucleic acid
• A subunit of a Nucleic Acid
• Sequence of nucleotides determines the gene
and the protein to be assembled
DNA
RNA
Chargaff’s Rule
Complimentary base pairs
Clues:
Arbol = Tree
Aunt = Tia
Gato = Cat
Galleta = Cookie
2 Replication Fork
3 Nucleotide
CELL CYCLE & STAGES OF MITOSIS
INTERPHASE
REPLICATION
PROPHASE
CYTOKINESIS –
DAUGHTER
CELLS
METAPHASE
TELOPHASE
ANAPHASE
BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS & MITOSIS
 Chromosome
number is
reduced:
diploid to
haploid
Mitosis
Meiosis
• Chromosome
number
remains the
same: diploid
Chromosomes align
to diploid
at the metaphase
Synapsis
and crossing
over occur
Homologs align
independently.
plate (equator).
 Crossing over
and
independent
assortment
provides
genetic
diversity
 Sexual
selection in
creation of
sperm and
ovum
Chromosomes
separate
Homologs separate.
• Chromosomes
are paired
because one
came from
each parent.
Daughter cells form
Daughter
cells
form
Daughter
chromosomes
separate
Daughter nuclei are not genetically
identical. In Oogenesis, only one
daughter cell becomes the ovum.
Daughter nuclei are genetically
identical to parent cell.
• Provides
identical
daughter cells
for growth,
repair
Metaphase
ANIMAL CELLS
PLANT CELLS
• Ribonucleic
Acid
• Deoxyribonucleic
Acid
• Ribose Sugar
• Deoxyribose
Sugar
• Uracil instead
of Thymine
• Single
Stranded
• Double Stranded
• Helical = spirals
• Thymine instead
of Uracil
Forms of RNA
mRNA
Messenger RNA
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA
tRNA
Transfer RNA
replication
transcription
translation
EXONS
INTRONS TELOMERES
SUMMARY
Ultraviolet light causes the breaking of
bonds between purines and
pyrimidines when two pyrimidine
molecules of the same type (T or C) are
adjacent to one another on a
nucleotide. These pyrimidine dimers
distort the sugar phosphate backbone
and prevent proper replication and
transcription.
Chemicals from smoke and yellow and
red dyes can cause FRAMESHIFT
MUTATIONS in DNA as DNA polymerase
copies the alter strand, adding or
deleting base pairs around the bulge
formed by the bound mutagen
TYPES OF MUTATIONS
Deletion
Duplication
Inversion
Insertion
Substitution
(no diagram)
Normal
Human
Karyotype.
23 pair = 46
Human
Karyotype with
a mutation,
Trisomy 21,
that causes
Down’s
Syndrome by
nondysjunction
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS
Mutations in genes (changes in the codons, or changes in
pieces of chromosomes ) can lead to serious diseases.
EXAMPLE: the BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 (BReast CAncer) gene is a
tumor suppressor gene. A mutation in this gene is inherited.
This mutation is found in many cases of breast cancer and
ovarian cancer.
The presence of this mutated gene can lead to uncontrolled
cell division which is called “cancer.”
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Mendelian Genetics:
inheritance patterns that
follow the ratios
determined by dominant
and recessive genes
HOMOZYGOUS
PUREBRED
HETEROZYGOUS
HYBRID
DOMINANT
RECESSIVE
GENE
ALLELES
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MONOHYBRID CROSS
DIHYBRID CROSS
MENDELIAN RATIOS
PHENOTYPE
GENOTYPE
PEDIGREE
Non-Mendelian Genetics:
inheritance patterns that
do not follow the ratios:
sex linkage, incomplete
dominance,
codominance, multiple
alleles
Alleles separate independently in meiosis
producing haploid gametes for sexual selection
Predict the outcome of crosses
Female Gametes
REPRESENT GAMETES BY FIRST
LETTER OF DOMINANT GENE
Homozygous recessive X Heterozygous
Male Gametes
rr
X
Rr
Phenotype Ratio: 2::2 = 1::1 = 50 – 50
50% chance of red flower
and 50 % white flower
Genotype Ratio: 2::2 = 1::1 = 50 – 50
50% chance of heterozygotes
and 50 % chance of homozygous recessive
MONOHYBRID CROSS
Yy
X
Yy
Heterozygous X Heterozygous
Phenotype Ratio: 3:1
75% chance yellow seed
25 % green seed
Genotype Ratio: 1: 2: 1
25% chance of homozygous dominant
50% chance of heterozygous (hybrid)
25% chance of homozygous recessive
DIHYBRID CROSS
YyRr X YyRr
Phenotype ratio:
9:3:3:1
9 smooth yellow
3 wrinkled yellow
3 smooth green
1 wrinkled green
Both traits are expressed
female
male
Sex-linked Genes
Most sex linked
genes occur on
the X
chromosome.
Because a male is
XY, if the
recessive gene is
on the X, it will be
expressed,
whereas in the
XX female, it has
more of chance
being hidden by
the dominant
gene, making the
female only a
heterozygous
“carrier.”
P1
F1
F2
Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of genes for
practical purposes. Several of these purposes include
yielding bigger and better crops and meat, aiding in
infertility problems, finding cures for diseases, etc.