Transcript Pindyck/Rubinfeld Microeconomics

CHAPTER
10
Market Power: Monopoly
and Monopsony
CHAPTER OUTLINE
10.1 Monopoly
10.2 Monopoly Power
10.3 Sources of Monopoly
Power
10.4 The Social Costs of
Monopoly Power
10.5 Monopsony
10.6 Monopsony Power
10.7 Limiting Market Power:
The Antitrust Laws
Prepared by:
Fernando Quijano, Illustrator
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● monopoly
Market with only one seller.
● monopsony
● market power
Market with only one buyer.
Ability of a seller or buyer to affect the price of a good.
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10.1 Monopoly
Average Revenue and Marginal Revenue
● marginal revenue
Change in revenue resulting from a one-unit increase in
output.
Consider a firm facing the following demand curve: P = 6  Q
TABLE 10.1
TOTAL, MARGINAL, AND AVERAGE REVENUE
PRICE (P)
QUANTITY (Q)
TOTAL
REVENUE (R)
MARGINAL
REVENUE (MR)
AVERAGE
REVENUE (AR)
$6
0
$0
—
—
5
1
5
$5
$5
4
2
8
3
4
3
3
9
1
3
2
4
8
1
2
1
5
5
3
1
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FIGURE 10.1
AVERAGE AND
MARGINAL REVENUE
Average and marginal
revenue are shown for
the demand curve
P = 6 − Q.
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The Monopolist’s Output Decision
FIGURE 10.2
PROFIT IS MAXIMIZED WHEN
MARGINAL REVENUE
EQUALS MARGINAL COST
Q* is the output level at
which MR = MC.
If the firm produces a smaller
output—say, Q1—it sacrifices
some profit because the
extra revenue that could be
earned from producing and
selling the units between Q1
and Q* exceeds the cost of
producing them.
Similarly, expanding output
from Q* to Q2 would reduce
profit because the additional
cost would exceed the
additional revenue.
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We can also see algebraically that Q* maximizes profit. Profit π is the difference
between revenue and cost, both of which depend on Q:
𝜋 𝑄 =𝑅 𝑄 −𝐶 𝑄
As Q is increased from zero, profit will increase until it reaches a maximum and
then begin to decrease. Thus the profit-maximizing Q is such that the
incremental profit resulting from a small increase in Q is just zero (i.e., Δπ /ΔQ
= 0). Then
∆𝜋 ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑅 ∆𝑄 − ∆𝐶 ∆𝑄 = 0
But ΔR/ΔQ is marginal revenue and ΔC/ΔQ is marginal cost. Thus the profitmaximizing condition is that
MR − MC = 0, or MR = MC
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An Example
C𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶 𝑄 = 50 + 𝑄2
𝐷𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑: 𝑃 𝑄 = 40 − 𝑄
FIGURE 10.3
EXAMPLE OF PROFIT MAXIMIZATION
Part (a) shows total revenue R, total cost C, and
profit, the difference between the two.
Part (b) shows average and marginal revenue
and average and marginal cost.
Marginal revenue is the slope of the total revenue
curve, and marginal cost is the slope of the total
cost curve.
The profit-maximizing output is Q* = 10, the point
where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
At this output level, the slope of the profit curve is
zero, and the slopes of the total revenue and
total cost curves are equal.
The profit per unit is $15, the difference between
average revenue and average cost. Because 10
units are produced, total profit is $150.
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A Rule of Thumb for Pricing
With limited knowledge of average and marginal revenue, we can derive a rule of
thump that can be more easily applied in practice. First, write the expression for
marginal revenue:
MR =
∆𝑅 ∆ 𝑃𝑄
=
∆𝑄
∆𝑄
Note that the extra revenue from an incremental unit of quantity, Δ(PQ)/ΔQ, has
two components:
1. Producing one extra unit and selling it at price P brings in revenue (1)(P) = P.
2. But because the firm faces a downward-sloping demand curve, producing
and selling this extra unit also results in a small drop in price ΔP/ΔQ, which
reduces the revenue from all units sold (i.e., a change in revenue Q[ΔP/ΔQ]).
Thus,
∆𝑃
𝑄
MR = 𝑃 + 𝑄
=𝑃+𝑃
∆𝑄
𝑃
∆𝑃
∆𝑄
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(Q/P)(ΔP/ΔQ) is the reciprocal of the elasticity of demand, 1/Ed,
measured at the profit-maximizing output, and
MR = 𝑃 + 𝑃 1 𝐸𝑑
Now, because the firm’s objective is to maximize profit, we can set marginal
revenue equal to marginal cost:
𝑃 + 𝑃 1 𝐸𝑑 = MC
which can be rearranged to give us
𝑃 − MC
1
=−
𝑃
𝐸𝑑
(10.1)
Equivalently, we can rearrange this equation to express price directly as a
markup over marginal cost:
𝑃=
MC
1 + 1 𝐸𝑑
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(10.2)
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EXAMPLE 10.1
ASTRA-MERCK PRICES PRILOSEC
In 1995, Prilosec, represented a new generation of
antiulcer medication. Prilosec was based on a very
different biochemical mechanism and was much
more effective than earlier drugs.
By 1996, it had become the best-selling drug in
the world and faced no major competitor.
Astra-Merck was pricing Prilosec at about $3.50 per daily dose.
The marginal cost of producing and packaging Prilosec is only about 30 to 40
cents per daily dose.
The price elasticity of demand, ED, should be in the range of roughly −1.0 to
−1.2.
Setting the price at a markup exceeding 400 percent over marginal cost is
consistent with our rule of thumb for pricing.
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Shifts in Demand
A monopolistic market has no supply curve. In other words, there is no one-toone relationship between price and the quantity produced.
The reason is that the monopolist’s output decision depends not only on
marginal cost but also on the shape of the demand curve.
As a result, shifts in demand do not trace out the series of prices and quantities
that correspond to a competitive supply curve. Instead, shifts in demand can
lead to changes in price with no change in output, changes in output with no
change in price, or changes in both price and output.
Shifts in demand usually cause changes in both price and quantity. A
competitive industry supplies a specific quantity at every price. No such
relationship exists for a monopolist, which, depending on how demand shifts,
might supply several different quantities at the same price, or the same quantity
at different prices.
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FIGURE 10.4
SHIFTS IN DEMAND
Shifting the demand curve shows
that a monopolistic market has no
supply curve—i.e., there is no
one-to-one relationship between
price and quantity produced.
In (a), the demand curve D1 shifts
to new demand curve D2.
But the new marginal revenue
curve MR2 intersects marginal
cost at the same point as the old
marginal revenue curve MR1.
The profit-maximizing output
therefore remains the same,
although price falls from P1 to P2.
In (b), the new marginal revenue
curve MR2 intersects marginal
cost at a higher output level Q2.
But because demand is now more
elastic, price remains the same.
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The Effect of a Tax
Suppose a specific tax of t dollars per unit is levied, so that the
monopolist must remit t dollars to the government for every unit it sells. If MC
was the firm’s original marginal cost, its optimal production decision is now
given by
MR = MC + 𝑇
FIGURE 10.5
EFFECT OF EXCISE TAX ON
MONOPOLIST
With a tax t per unit, the firm’s
effective marginal cost is increased by
the amount t to MC + t.
In this example, the increase in price
ΔP is larger than the tax t.
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The Multiplant Firm
Suppose a firm has two plants. What should its total output be, and how much
of that output should each plant produce? We can find the answer intuitively in
two steps.
● Step 1. Whatever the total output, it should be divided between the two
plants so that marginal cost is the same in each plant. Otherwise, the firm
could reduce its costs and increase its profit by reallocating production.
● Step 2. We know that total output must be such that marginal revenue
equals marginal cost. Otherwise, the firm could increase its profit by raising
or lowering total output.
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We can also derive this result algebraically. Let Q1 and C1 be the output and
cost of production for Plant 1, Q2 and C2 be the output and cost of production
for Plant 2, and QT = Q1 + Q2 be total output. Then profit is
𝜋 = 𝑃𝑄𝑇 − 𝐶1 𝑄1 − 𝐶2 𝑄2
The firm should increase output from each plant until the incremental profit
from the last unit produced is zero. Start by setting incremental profit from
output at Plant 1 to zero:
∆𝜋
∆ 𝑃𝑄𝑇
∆𝐶1
=
−
=0
∆𝑄1
∆𝑄1
∆𝑄1
Here Δ(PQT)/ΔQ1 is the revenue from producing and selling one more unit—
i.e., marginal revenue, MR, for all of the firm’s output.
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The next term, ΔC1/ΔQ1, is marginal cost at Plant 1, MC1. We thus have
MR − MC1 = 0, or
MR = MC1
Similarly, we can set incremental profit from output at Plant 2 to zero,
MR = MC2
Putting these relations together, we see that the firm should produce so that
MR = MC1 = MC2
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(10.3)
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FIGURE 10.6
PRODUCING WITH TWO
PLANTS
A firm with two plants
maximizes profits by
choosing output levels Q1
and Q2 so that marginal
revenue MR (which
depends on total output)
equals marginal costs for
each plant, MC1 and
MC2.
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10.2 Monopoly Power
FIGURE 10.7
THE DEMAND FOR
TOOTHBRUSHES
Part (a) shows the market
demand for toothbrushes.
Part (b) shows the demand
for toothbrushes as seen by
Firm A.
At a market price of $1.50,
elasticity of market demand is
−1.5.
Firm A, however, sees a
much more elastic demand
curve DA because of
competition from other firms.
At a price of $1.50, Firm A’s
demand elasticity is −6.
Still, Firm A has some
monopoly power: Its profitmaximizing price is $1.50,
which exceeds marginal cost.
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EXAMPLE 10.2
ELASTICITIES OF DEMAND FOR SOFT DRINKS
Soft drinks provide a good example of the difference between a market
elasticity of demand and a firm’s elasticity of demand.
In addition, soft drinks are important because their consumption has been
linked to childhood obesity; there could be health benefits from taxing them.
A recent review of several statistical studies found that the market elasticity of
demand for soft drinks is between −0.8 and −1.0.6 That means that if all soft
drink producers increased the prices of all of their brands by 1 percent, the
quantity of soft drinks demanded would fall by 0.8 to 1.0 percent.
The demand for any individual soft drink, however, will be much more elastic,
because consumers can readily substitute one drink for another.
Although elasticities will differ across different brands, studies have shown
that the elasticity of demand for, say, Coca Cola is around −5.7 In other
words, if the price of Coke were increased by 1 percent but the prices of all
other soft drinks remained unchanged, the quantity of Coke demanded would
fall by about 5 percent.
Students—and business people—sometimes confuse the market elasticity of
demand with the firm (or brand) elasticity of demand. Make sure you
understand the difference.
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Production, Price, and Monopoly Power
In figure 10.7, although Firm A is not a pure monopolist, it does have
monopoly power—it can profitably charge a price greater than marginal cost.
Of course, its monopoly power is less than it would be if it had driven away the
competition and monopolized the market, but it might still be substantial.
This raises two questions.
1. How can we measure monopoly power in order to compare one firm with
another? (So far we have been talking about monopoly power only in
qualitative terms.)
2. What are the sources of monopoly power, and why do some firms have
more monopoly power than others?
We address both these questions below, although a more complete answer to
the second question will be provided in Chapters 12 and 13.
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Measuring Monopoly Power
Remember the important distinction between a perfectly competitive firm and a
firm with monopoly power: For the competitive firm, price equals marginal cost;
for the firm with monopoly power, price exceeds marginal cost.
● Lerner Index of Monopoly Power Measure of monopoly power calculated
as excess of price over marginal cost as a fraction of price.
Mathematically:
𝐿 = 𝑃 − MC 𝑃
This index of monopoly power can also be expressed in terms of the elasticity
of demand facing the firm.
𝐿 = 𝑃 − MC 𝑃 = −1 𝐸𝑑
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(10.4)
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The Rule of Thumb for Pricing
MC
𝑃=
1 + 1 𝐸𝑑
FIGURE 10.8
ELASTICITY OF DEMAND AND PRICE MARKUP
The markup (P − MC)/P is equal to minus the inverse of the elasticity of demand.
If the firm’s demand is elastic, as in (a), the markup is small and the firm has little
monopoly power.
The opposite is true if demand is relatively inelastic, as in (b).
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EXAMPLE 10.3
MARKUP PRICING: SUPERMARKETS TO
DESIGNER JEANS
Although the elasticity of market demand for food is
small (about −1), no single supermarket can raise its
prices very much without losing customers to other
stores.
The elasticity of demand for any one supermarket is
often as large as −10. We find P = MC/(1 − 0.1) =
MC/(0.9) = (1.11)MC.
The manager of a typical supermarket should set prices about 11 percent
above marginal cost.
Small convenience stores typically charge higher prices because its customers
are generally less price sensitive.
Because the elasticity of demand for a convenience store is about −5, the
markup equation implies that its prices should be about 25 percent above
marginal cost.
With designer jeans, demand elasticities in the range of −2 to −3 are typical.
This means that price should be 50 to 100 percent higher than marginal cost.
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EXAMPLE 10.4 THE PRICING OF VIDEOS
When the market for videos was young, producers had no good estimates of
the elasticity of demand. As the market matured, however, sales data and
market research studies put pricing decisions on firmer ground. By the 1990s,
most producers had lowered prices across the board.
TABLE 10.2
RETAIL PRICES OF VIDEOS IN 1985 AND 2011
1985
TITLE
2011
RETAIL PRICE ($)
TITLE
VHS
Purple Rain
RETAIL PRICE ($)
DVD
$29.98
Tangled
$20.60
Raiders of the Lost Ark
$24.95
Harry Potter and the Deathly
Hallows, Part 1
$20.58
Jane Fonda Workout
$59.95
Megamind
$18.74
The Empire Strikes Back
$79.98
Despicable Me
$14.99
An Officer and a Gentleman
$24.95
Red
$27.14
Star Trek: The Motion Picture
$24.95
The King’s Speech
$14.99
Star Wars
$39.98
Secretariat
$20.60
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EXAMPLE 10.4 THE PRICING OF VIDEOS
FIGURE 10.9
VIDEO SALES
Between 1990 and 1998, lower prices induced consumers to buy many more videos.
By 2001, sales of DVDs overtook sales of VHS videocassettes.
High-definition DVDs were introduced in 2006, and are expected to displace sales of
conventional DVDs. All DVDs, however, are now being displaced by streaming video.
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10.3 Sources of Monopoly Power
As equation (10.4) shows, the less elastic its demand curve, the more
monopoly power a firm has. The ultimate determinant of monopoly power is
therefore the firm’s elasticity of demand.
Three factors determine a firm’s elasticity of demand.
1. The elasticity of market demand. Because the firm’s own demand will be
at least as elastic as market demand, the elasticity of market demand limits
the potential for monopoly power.
2. The number of firms in the market. If there are many firms, it is unlikely
that any one firm will be able to affect price significantly.
3. The interaction among firms. Even if only two or three firms are in the
market, each firm will be unable to profitably raise price very much if the
rivalry among them is aggressive, with each firm trying to capture as much of
the market as it can.
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The Elasticity of Market Demand
If there is only one firm—a pure monopolist—its demand curve is the market
demand curve. In this case, the firm’s degree of monopoly power depends
completely on the elasticity of market demand.
When several firms compete with one another, the elasticity of market demand
sets a lower limit on the magnitude of the elasticity of demand for each firm.
A particular firm’s elasticity depends on how the firms compete with one
another, and the elasticity of market demand limits the potential monopoly
power of individual producers.
Because the demand for oil is fairly inelastic (at least in the short run), OPEC
could raise oil prices far above marginal production cost during the 1970s and
early 1980s. Because the demands for such commodities as coffee, cocoa, tin,
and copper are much more elastic, attempts by producers to cartelize these
markets and raise prices have largely failed. In each case, the elasticity of
market demand limits the potential monopoly power of individual producers.
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The Number of Firms
Other things being equal, the monopoly power of each firm will fall as the
number of firms increases.
When only a few firms account for most of the sales in a market, we say that
the market is highly concentrated.
● barrier to entry
Condition that impedes entry by new competitors.
Sometimes there are natural barriers to entry:
• Patents, copyrights, and licenses
• Economies of scale may make it too costly for more than a few firms to
supply the entire market. In some cases, economies of scale may be so
large that it is most efficient for a single firm—a natural monopoly—to supply
the entire market.
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The Interaction Among Firms
Firms might compete aggressively, undercutting one another’s prices to capture
more market share, or they might not compete much. They might even collude
(in violation of the antitrust laws), agreeing to limit output and raise prices.
Other things being equal, monopoly power is smaller when firms compete
aggressively and is larger when they cooperate. Because raising prices in
concert rather than individually is more likely to be profitable, collusion can
generate substantial monopoly power.
Remember that a firm’s monopoly power often changes over time, as its
operating conditions (market demand and cost), its behavior, and the behavior
of its competitors change. Monopoly power must therefore be thought of
in a dynamic context.
Furthermore, real or potential monopoly power in the short run can make an
industry more competitive in the long run: Large short-run profits can induce
new firms to enter an industry, thereby reducing monopoly power over the
longer term.
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10.4 The Social Costs of Monopoly Power
FIGURE 10.10
DEADWEIGHT LOSS FROM
MONOPOLY POWER
The shaded rectangle and
triangles show changes in
consumer and producer surplus
when moving from competitive
price and quantity, Pc and Qc,
to a monopolist’s price and
quantity, Pm and Qm.
Because of the higher price,
consumers lose A + B
and producer gains A − C. The
deadweight loss is B + C.
Rent Seeking
● rent seeking Spending money in socially unproductive efforts to acquire,
maintain, or exercise monopoly.
We would expect the economic incentive to incur rent-seeking costs to bear a direct
relation to the gains from monopoly power (i.e., rectangle A minus triangle C.)
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Price Regulation
FIGURE 10.11 (1 of 2)
PRICE REGULATION
If left alone, a monopolist
produces Qm and charges
Pm.
When the government
imposes a price ceiling of
P1 the firm’s average and
marginal revenue are
constant and equal to P1 for
output levels up to Q1.
For larger output levels, the
original average and
marginal revenue curves
apply.
The new marginal revenue
curve is, therefore, the dark
purple line, which intersects
the marginal cost curve at
Q1.
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FIGURE 10.11 (2 of 2)
PRICE REGULATION
When price is lowered to
Pc, at the point where
marginal cost intersects
average revenue, output
increases to its maximum
Qc. This is the output that
would be produced by a
competitive industry.
Lowering price further, to
P3, reduces output to Q3
and causes a shortage,
Q’3 − Q3.
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Natural Monopoly
● natural monopoly Firm that can produce the entire output of the
market at a cost lower than what it would be if there were several firms.
FIGURE 10.12
REGULATING THE PRICE OF A
NATURAL MONOPOLY
A firm is a natural monopoly because it
has economies of scale (declining
average and marginal costs) over its
entire output range.
If price were regulated to be Pc the firm
would lose money and go out of
business.
Setting the price at Pr yields the largest
possible output consistent with the
firm’s remaining in business; excess
profit is zero.
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Regulation in Practice
The regulation of a monopoly is sometimes based on the rate of return
that it earns on its capital. The regulatory agency determines an allowed price,
so that this rate of return is in some sense “competitive” or “fair.”
● rate-of-return regulation Maximum price allowed by a regulatory agency
is based on the (expected) rate of return that a firm will earn.
Although it is a key element in determining the firm’s rate of return, a firm’s
capital stock is difficult to value. While a “fair” rate of return must be based on the
firm’s actual cost of capital, that cost depends in turn on the behavior of the
regulatory agency. Regulatory lag is a term associated with delays in changing
regulated prices.
Another approach to regulation is setting price caps based on the firm’s variable
costs. A price cap can allow for more flexibility than rate-of-return regulation.
Under price cap regulation, for example, a firm would typically be allowed to
raise its prices each year (without having to get approval from the regulatory
agency) by an amount equal to the actual rate of inflation, minus expected
productivity growth.
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10.5 Monopsony
● oligopsony
Market with only a few buyers.
● monopsony power
● marginal value
a good.
Buyer’s ability to affect the price of a good.
Additional benefit derived from purchasing one more unit of
● marginal expenditure
● average expenditure
Additional cost of buying one more unit of a good.
Price paid per unit of a good.
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FIGURE 10.13
COMPETITIVE BUYER COMPARED TO COMPETITIVE SELLER
In (a), the competitive buyer takes market price P* as given. Therefore, marginal
expenditure and average expenditure are constant and equal;
quantity purchased is found by equating price to marginal value (demand).
In (b), the competitive seller also takes price as given. Marginal revenue and average
revenue are constant and equal;
quantity sold is found by equating price to marginal cost.
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FIGURE 10.14
MONOPSONIST BUYER
The market supply curve is
monopsonist’s average expenditure
curve AE.
Because average expenditure is
rising, marginal expenditure lies
above it.
The monopsonist purchases
quantity Q*m, where marginal
expenditure and marginal value
(demand) intersect.
The price paid per unit P*m is then
found from the average expenditure
(supply) curve.
In a competitive market, price and
quantity, Pc and Qc, are both higher.
They are found at the point where
average expenditure (supply) and
marginal value (demand) intersect.
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Monopsony and Monopoly Compared
FIGURE 10.15
MONOPOLY AND MONOPSONY
These diagrams show the close analogy between monopoly and monopsony.
(a) The monopolist produces where marginal revenue intersects marginal cost.
Average revenue exceeds marginal revenue, so that price exceeds marginal cost.
(b) The monopsonist purchases up to the point where marginal expenditure intersects
marginal value.
Marginal expenditure exceeds average expenditure, so that marginal value exceeds price.
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10.6 Monopsony Power
FIGURE 10.16
MONOPSONY POWER: ELASTIC VERSUS INELASTIC SUPPLY
Monopsony power depends on the elasticity of supply.
When supply is elastic, as in (a), marginal expenditure and average expenditure do
not differ by much, so price is close to what it would be in a competitive market.
The opposite is true when supply is inelastic, as in (b).
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Sources of Monopsony Power
ELASTICITY OF MARKET SUPPLY
If only one buyer is in the market—a pure monopsonist—its monopsony power
is completely determined by the elasticity of market supply. If supply is highly
elastic, monopsony power is small and there is little gain in being the only
buyer.
NUMBER OF BUYERS
When the number of buyers is very large, no single buyer can have much
influence over price. Thus each buyer faces an extremely elastic supply curve,
so that the market is almost completely competitive.
INTERACTION AMONG BUYERS
If four buyers in a market compete aggressively, they will bid up the price close
to their marginal value of the product, and will thus have little monopsony
power. On the other hand, if those buyers compete less aggressively, or even
collude, prices will not be bid up very much, and the buyers’ degree of
monopsony power might be nearly as high as if there were only one buyer.
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The Social Costs of Monopsony Power
FIGURE 10.17
DEADWEIGHT LOSS FROM
MONOPSONY POWER
The shaded rectangle and
triangles show changes in
buyer and seller surplus
when moving from
competitive price and
quantity, Pc and Qc,
to the monopsonist’s price
and quantity, Pm and Qm.
Because both price and
quantity are lower, there is
an increase in buyer
(consumer) surplus given
by A − B.
Producer surplus falls by
A + C, so there is a
deadweight loss given by
triangles B and C.
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Bilateral Monopoly
● bilateral monopoly
Market with only one seller and one buyer.
It is difficult to predict the price and quantity in a bilateral monopoly. Both the
buyer and the seller are in a bargaining situation.
Bilateral monopoly is rare. Although bargaining may still be involved, we can
apply a rough principle here: Monopsony power and monopoly power will tend
to counteract each other. In other words, the monopsony power of buyers will
reduce the effective monopoly power of sellers, and vice versa.
This tendency does not mean that the market will end up looking perfectly
competitive, but in general, monopsony power will push price closer to marginal
cost, and monopoly power will push price closer to marginal value.
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EXAMPLE 10.5
MONOPSONY POWER IN U.S. MANUFACTURING
The role of monopsony power was investigated to
determine the extent to which variations in pricecost margins could be attributed to variations in
monopsony power.
The study found that buyers’ monopsony power had
an important effect on the price-cost margins of
sellers.
In industries where only four or five buyers account for all or nearly all sales,
the price-cost margins of sellers would on average be as much as 10
percentage points lower than in comparable industries with hundreds of buyers
accounting for sales.
Each major car producer in the United States typically buys an individual part
from at least three, and often as many as a dozen, suppliers.
For a specialized part, a single auto company may be the only buyer.
As a result, the automobile companies have considerable monopsony power.
Not surprisingly, producers of parts and components usually have little or no
monopoly power.
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10.7 Limiting Market Power:
The Antitrust Laws
Excessive market power harms potential purchasers and raises problems of
equity and fairness. In addition, market power reduces output, which leads to a
deadweight loss.
In theory, a firm’s excess profits could be taxed away, but redistribution of the
firm’s profits is often impractical.
To limit the market power of a natural monopoly, such as an electric utility
company, direct price regulation is the answer.
● antitrust laws Rules and regulations prohibiting actions that restrain, or are
likely to restrain, competition.
It is important to stress that, while there are limitations (such as colluding with
other firms), in general, it is not illegal to be a monopolist or to have market
power. On the contrary, we have seen that patent and copyright laws protect
the monopoly positions of firms that developed unique innovations.
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Restricting what Firms can do
● parallel conduct Form of implicit collusion in which one firm consistently
follows actions of another.
● predatory pricing Practice of pricing to drive current competitors out of
business and to discourage new entrants in a market so that a firm can enjoy
higher future profits.
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Enforcement of the Antitrust Laws
The antitrust laws are enforced in three ways:
1. Through the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice.
2. Through the administrative procedures of the Federal Trade Commission.
3. Through private proceedings.
Antitrust in Europe
At first glance, the antitrust laws of the European Union are quite similar to those
of the United States. Article 101 of the Treaty of the European Community
concerns restraints of trade, much like Section 1 of the Sherman Act. Article 102,
which focuses on abuses of market power by dominant firms, is similar in many
ways to Section 2 of the Sherman Act. Finally, with respect to mergers, the
European Merger Control Act is similar in spirit to Section 7 of the Clayton Act.
Nevertheless, there remain a number of procedural and substantive differences
between antitrust laws in Europe and the United States. Merger evaluations
typically are conducted more quickly in Europe.
Antitrust enforcement has grown rapidly through the world in the past decade.
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EXAMPLE 10.6
A PHONE CALL ABOUT PRICES
Robert Crandall, president and CEO of American, made a phone call to
Howard Putnam, president and chief executive of Braniff. It went like this:
Crandall: I think it’s dumb as hell for Christ’s sake, all right, to sit here and
pound the @!#$%&! out of each other and neither one of us making a
@!#$%&! dime.
Putnam: Well . . .
Crandall: I mean, you know, @!#$%&!, what the hell is the point of it?
Putnam: But if you’re going to overlay every route of American’s on top of
every route that Braniff has—I just can’t sit here and allow you to bury us
without giving our best effort.
Crandall: Oh sure, but Eastern and Delta do the same thing in Atlanta and
have for years.
Putnam: Do you have a suggestion for me?
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EXAMPLE 10.6
A PHONE CALL ABOUT PRICES
Crandall: Yes, I have a suggestion for you. Raise your @!#$%&! fares 20
percent. I’ll raise mine the next morning.
Putnam: Robert, we. . .
Crandall: You’ll make more money and I will, too.
Putnam: We can’t talk about pricing!
Crandall: Oh @!#$%&!, Howard. We can talk about any @!#$%&! thing we
want to talk about.
Crandall was wrong. Talking about prices and agreeing to fix them is a clear
violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Act.
However, proposing to fix prices is not enough to violate Section 1 of the
Sherman Act: For the law to be violated, the two parties must agree to collude.
Therefore, because Putnam had rejected Crandall’s proposal, Section 1 was
not violated.
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EXAMPLE 10.7
GO DIRECTLY TO JAIL. DON’T PASS GO
If you become a successful business executive, think
twice before picking up the phone. And if your
company happens to be located in Europe or Asia,
don’t think that will keep you out of a U.S. jail.
For example:
• In 1996 Archer Daniels Midland (ADM) and two other producers of lysine (an
animal feed additive) pled guilty to charges of price fixing. In 1999 three
ADM executives were sentenced to prison terms of two to three years.
• In 1999 four of the world’s largest drug and chemical companies—HoffmanLa Roche of Switzerland, BASF of Germany, Rhone Poulenc of France, and
Takeda of Japan—pled guilty to fixing the prices of vitamins sold in the U.S.
and Europe. The companies paid about $1.5 billion in penalties to the U.S.
Department of Justice (DOJ), $1 billion to the European Commission, and
over $4 billion to settle civil suits. Executives from each of the companies did
prison time in the U.S.
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EXAMPLE 10.7
GO DIRECTLY TO JAIL. DON’T PASS GO
If you become a successful business executive, think
twice before picking up the phone. And if your
company happens to be located in Europe or Asia,
don’t think that will keep you out of a U.S. jail.
For example:
• During 2002 to 2009, Horizon Lines engaged in price fixing with Sea Star
Lines (Puerto Rico-based shipping companies). Five executives got prison
terms ranging from one to four years.
• Eight companies, mostly in Korea and Japan, fixed DRAM (memory chip)
prices from 1998 to 2002. In 2007, 18 executives from these companies were
sentenced to prison terms in the United States.
• In 2009, five companies pled guilty to fixing prices of LCD displays during
2001 to 2006. 22 executives received prison sentences in the United States
(on top of $1 billion in fines).
• In 2011, two companies were convicted of fixing prices and rigging bids for
ready-mix concrete in Iowa. One executive was sentenced to one year in
prison, another to four years.
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EXAMPLE 10.8
THE UNITED STATES AND THE EUROPEAN UNION
VERSUS MICROSOFT
Over the past two decades Microsoft has grown to become the
largest computer software company in the world, and has
dominated the office productivity market.
Under the antitrust laws of the United States and the European
Union, efforts by firms to restrain trade or to engage in
activities that inappropriately maintain monopolies are illegal.
Did Microsoft engage in anticompetitive, illegal practices?
In 1998, the U.S. government said yes; Microsoft disagreed.
The Antitrust Division of the U.S. DOJ filed suit, claiming that Microsoft had
illegally bundled its Internet browser, Internet Explorer, with its operating system
for the purpose of maintaining its dominant operating system monopoly.
Following an eight-month trial that was hard-fought on a range of economic
issues, the District Court found that Microsoft did have monopoly power in the
market for PC operating systems, which it had maintained illegally in violation of
Section 2 of the Sherman Act.
The U.S. case was ultimately settled in 2004, with (among other things) Microsoft
agreeing to give computer manufacturers (1) the ability to offer an operating
system without Internet Explorer and (2) the option of loading competing browser
Programs on the PCs that they sell.
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EXAMPLE 10.8
THE UNITED STATES AND THE EUROPEAN UNION
VERSUS MICROSOFT
Microsoft’s problems did not end with the U.S. settlement,
however. In 2004, the European Commission ordered Microsoft
to pay $794 million in fines for its anticompetitive practices, to
produce a version of Windows without the Windows Media
Player to be sold alongside its standard editions.
In 2008, the European Commission levied an additional fine of
$1.44 billion, claiming that Microsoft had not complied with the
earlier decision. Even more recently, in response to a concern
relating to the bundling of browsers, Microsoft agreed to offer
customers a choice of browsers when first booting up their new operating system.
As of 2011, the European case against Microsoft remains on appeal. There is
strong evidence that the European-imposed remedies have had little impact on
the market for media players or browsers. However, Microsoft is facing an even
stronger threat than U.S. or E.U. enforcement, such as competition from the
powerful Google search engine and social media sites such as Facebook.
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