Transcript Chapter 17
Chapter 17 The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment The Enlightenment Paths to Enlightenment “Dare to know” – Emmanual Kant defined Enlightenment as “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity” Scientific method to understand life Books were tough to read—written by the best brains of the time—and tough to get Popularization of Science: The link to the people of the scientific discoveries the philosophers • Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757), Plurality of Worlds; Conversation between lady aristocrat and her lover about science. • A “skeptic” about religion and portrayed churches as enemies of scientific progress Skepticism A New Skepticism Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) Historical and Critical Dictionary, • As scientific discoveries spread, more men and women questioned long-held religious truths and values • Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism • Skepticism about religion and growing secularization The Impact of Travel Literature Travel books became very popular • Captain James Cook; Geographical discoveries, e.g. Tahiti, New Zealand, and Australia raised the idea of the Noble Savage. Literature on China; Confucian morality were singled out Europeans began to evaluate their culture compared to others The Legacy of Locke & Newton Newton • reasoning could discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts • “the greatest and rarest genius that ever rose for the ornament and instruction of the species” • “God said, ‘Let Newton be, and all is light’” Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding • • • • knowledge derived from the environment denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas every person was born with a blank mind Our mind is developed from our environment, not from heredity; from reason, not from faith • People molded through experiences they received through their senses from their surrounding world The Legacy of Locke and Newton By changing the environment, peoples and societies can be changed Reason enabled enlightened people to discover natural laws to which all institutions should conform The philosophes were enamored with Locke and Newton. Taken together, their ideas seem to offer the hope of a “brave new world” built on reason 5 The Philosophers and their Ideas Came from all walks of life Paris was the “capital” Desire to change the world Call for a spirit of rational criticism 3 French Giants: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat, the Baron de Montesquieu From French nobility received a classical education then studied law His first book, “Persian Letters” Two Persians traveling in Paris and criticizing French institutions, especially Catholic Church and French monarchy Much of French Enlightenment: attack on traditional religion, advocating religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason to liberate humans beings Montesquieu’s most famous work, “The Spirit of the Laws” Published in 1748, applies the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” governing the social relationships of human beings “The Spirit of the Laws” distinguished three basic kinds of governments • Republics, suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement • Monarchy, appropriate for the middle-size states and grounded in the ruling class’s adherence to law • Despotism, apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience Voltaire and the Enlightenment Well liked by Parisian intellectuals, a quarrel with a nobleman forced him abroad to England for 2 years His “Philosophic Letters on the English” (1733) Liked freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration….”there are thirty religions and they live together peacefully and happily Indirectly, he criticized France, especially absolute royalty, lack of religious toleration, and freedom of thought Voltaire returned to France He was especially well known for his criticism of traditional religion and strong support of religious toleration Used prestige and skills as a polemicist to fight cases of intolerance in France Most famous case: Jean Calas • Accused of murdering his son to stop him from becoming Catholic • Tortured to confess, he soon died • Voltaire, through his writings, forced a retrial in which Calas was exonerated. His son had committed suicide Voltaire and the Enlightenment Accepted Deism: (the belief that reason and observation of the natural world are sufficient to determine the existence of God) Built on the Newtonian world machine theory, the mechanic—God—created the universe God had no direct involvement in the world and let it run according to its own natural laws and did not extend grace nor answer prayers • Jesus might be a “good fellow,” as Voltaire called Him but he was not divine as Christianity claimed Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot (1713-1784) Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot (1718-1784) edited the Encyclopedia published in 28 vols. Between 1751 and 1772. Voltaire, Rousseau and Montesquieu contributed articles. Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment Economic Philosophes advocated reform of the agrarian order. Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations (1776): The “Bible” of capitalism; laissez faire “let do” François Quesnay Leader of the Physiocrat – natural economic laws Rejection of mercantilism Supply and demand François Quesnay Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire Economics Adam Smith (1723-1790) The Wealth of Nations, 1776 basis for capitalism Attack on mercantilism Advocate of free trade Government has only three basic functions • Protect society from invasion • Defend individuals from injustice and oppression • Keep up public works The Later Enlightenment Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; Preservation of private property had enslaved Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority Concept of General Will Emile, 1762; important work on education • Natural education would free children of corruption The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment Agree that the nature of women make them inferior There were some exceptions, for example Diderot Mary Astell (1666-1731) A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, 1697 • Better education and equality in marriage • Argued for the equality of the sexes in marriage • “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to be so in a family” Women Philosophes Salons of Madame de Geoffren and Louise de Warens elegant drawing rooms of the wealthy, brought philosophers and other guests for witty and enlightened conversations Mary Wollstonecraft – Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) • Subjection of women by men wrong • founder of modern European feminism Mary Wollstonecraft Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature Baroque and Neoclassical styles gave way to Rococo Baroque and Neoclassical emphasized majesty, power, and movement Rococo brought change Rococo, new style of decoration and architecture, entered 1730s Emphasized grace and gentle action Followed wandering lines of natural objects (seashells and flowers) Rococo… Charm speaks to pleasure, love, and life (secular) Could be used with Baroque Baroque-Rococo architecture was popular style of 18th century Gold, delicate contours, graceful curves Rococo The Development of Music The 17th and 18th centuries saw the rise of the opera, oratorio, sonata, concerto, and symphony by Italians then Germans, Austrians, and English. • Most musicians depended on a patron Bach Music was a worship of God Handel Best known for his religious music Messiah Orchestra music 18th century instruments like the piano Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) Composed 104 symphonies, trip to England introduced him to writing for public concerts rather than princes • Wrote two oratorios, The Creation and The Seasons, both dedicated to the common people Mozart Carried tradition of Italian comic opera to new heights. Three of world’s greatest operas • The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, Don Giovanni 18 Development of the Novel Decisive time in the development of the novel Samuel Richardson First novel, Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded • Servant girl refuses to be raped and stands up for herself Henry Fielding The History of Tom Jones • Wrote novels abut people without scruples who survived with their wits The High Culture of the 18th Century High Culture, by 18th century Literally and artistic world of educated and wealthy Latin as language Theologians, scientists, philosophers, poets, etc. Supported by wealthy and literate lay group, mostly landed aristocracy and rich upper classed in cities Expansion of reading public and publishing Authors making money, less dependent on patrons magazines, Great Britain leading the way Twenty five published in 1700, 158 in 1780 Best known, Spectator, by Joseph Addison Newspapers began to appear First newspaper printed on London in 1702 Cheap Books circulated more widely Public libraries and private circulating libraries Education and Universities Large number of privately endowed secondary schools by 18th century Tended to be elitist, meeting needs of upper class Perpetuated class hierarchy instead of social mobility Philosophers reinforced idea to keep people in their original social class Still largely concentrated on Greek and Latin classics Not much mathematics, science, or modern languages Crime and Punishment Most European countries had hierarchy of courts Judicial torture was important means of obtaining evidence for trial Punishments were cruel and spectacular Nobles executed by simple beheading Lower class criminals tortured; broken at the wheel, drawn and quartered, etc. Public executions seen as necessary for deterrence Death penalty was commonly used—more than 200 crimes earned the death penalty There was forced labor in mines, forts, and navies Sent criminals as indentured servants to colonies Italian philosopher, Cesare Beccaria, wrote, On Crimes and Punishments Punishments should only serve as deterrent, not brutality Against capital punishment By end of 18th century, prisons replaced much of capital punishment actions The World of Medicine Graduate with doctorate in medicine needed for license to hold regular patient consultations Below physicians were surgeons whose main jobs were to bleed patients and perform surgery Surgery often done without painkillers and under filthy conditions Bleeding believed to combat variety of illnesses In 1740s, surgeons began to separate themselves from the barbers and organize into guilds Surgeons underwent more training in anatomy Began to be licensed Began to see patients Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers served the common people Hospitals were filthy and often people would leave with diseases they didn’t have when they went in