Transcript Document

LECTURE 6
1. Epithet: definitions. Epithet and logical
attribute.
Semantic
and
structural
classifications of epithets.
2. Figures of speech: Hyperbole, Litotes, Irony.
EPITHET [‘epıѲət] - эпитет
“Epithet” is one of the most ancient terms in
stylistics.
Therefore, there exist numerous definitions of
this phenomenon offered by such scholars as
O. Akhmanova, A. Kvyatkovsky, A. Veselovsky,
V. Zhirmunsky, etc
EPITHET: DEFINITIONS
Arnold: Epithet is a lexico-syntactical trope which
perfoms the function of an attribute, adverbial
modifier, or direct address in a sentence, and is
characterized by emotive and expressive
connotations which convey the author’s attitude
towards the object described.
E.g. …you shall hear the surly sullen bells (Shakespeare)
She smiled cuttingly.
My sweet!
EPITHET: DEFINITIONS
Galperin: The epithet is a stylistic device based on the
interplay of emotive and logical meaning in an
attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to
characterize an object and pointing out to the reader,
and frequently imposing on him, some of the
properties of the object with the aim of giving an
individual perception or evaluation.
E.g. wild wind
heart-burning smile
destructive charms
EPITHET AND LOGICAL ATTRIBUTE (Galperin)
Logical Purely
attribute objective,
descriptive,
indicates
an
inherent
or
prominent
feature
E. g.
square table
high mountain
Epithet
Markedly
subjective and
evaluative
E. g.
tired table
mysterious
mountain
SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHETS
CONVENTIONAL/ STANDING/
FIXED EPITHETS
(ПОСТОЯННЫЕ ЭПИТЕТЫ)
E.g. salt seas
dark forest
METAPHORICAL
EPITHETS
(МЕТАФОРИЧЕСКИЕ
ЭПИТЕТЫ)
E.g. howling sea
sullen forest
CONVENTIONAL/FIXED EPITHETS
• Originate in folklore genres (epics, ballads, folk songs,
etc).
• The epithet and the noun form a specific unit which
does not lose its poetic flavour:
E.g. fair lady, true love, merry old England, good old
days.
Tautological epithets: green wood.
Evaluative epithets: bonnie isle/ship; false steward.
Descriptive epithets: silver cups.
METAPHORICAL EPITHETS
• Metaphorical epithets are based on similarity of the
properties of two objects which belong to different
classes
• Often properties of human beings are ascribed to
lifeless things
E.g. laughing valleys
voiceless sands
STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHETS
ACCORDING TO THEIR COMPOSITION
(Galperin)
SIMPLE
EPITHETS
PHRASE
EPITHETS
COMPOUND
EPITHETS
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND EPITHETS
Simple epithets are expressed by ordinary
adjectives, adverbs, participles which can be
placed in pre- or postposition.
E.g. I am fled from this vile world (Shakespeare)
Her eyes stared gently into his.
Your loving and devoted wife.
Compound epithets are built like compound
adjectives.
E.g. …curly-headed good-for-nothing
And mischief-making monkey from his birth (Byron)
PHRASE EPITHETS
Phrase epithet is a phrase or a whole sentence which performs
an attributive function and graphically and syntactically
becomes similar to a word.
• Phrase epithets are always hyphenated
• Phrase epithets are generally followed by the words
expression, attitude, air and deal with the psychological state
of a person.
E.g. There is a sort of ‘Oh-what-a-wicked-world-this-is-andhow-I-wish-I-could-do-something-to-make-it-better-andnobler’ expression about Montmorency that has been known
to bring tears into the eyes of pious old ladies and gentlemen
(Jerome K. Jerome).
He was that I’m-a-friend-of-the-boss type.
REVERSED EPITHETS
Reversed epithet is composed of two nouns linked in an
of-phrase (Galperin).
E.g. …a devil of a sea rolls in that bay (Byron)
A little Flying Dutchman of a cab (Dickens)
a doll of a wife, a horse of a girl, a brute of a
brother
• The subjective, evaluative, emotional element is
embodied in the noun described, not in the formal
attribute.
• Reversed epithets are usually metaphorical.
STRING OF EPITHETS
Several epithets which can occur either in
preposition or postposition and provide a manysided characterization of an object.
E.g. Such was the background of the wonderful, cruel,
enchanting, bewildering, fatal, great city (O.Henry)
E.g. There is no interrogation in his eyes
Or in the hands, quiet over the horse’s neck,
And the eyes watchful, waiting, perceiving,
indifferent
(T.S. Eliot)
HYPERBOLE, LITOTES, IRONY (Geoffrey Leech)
• HYPERBOLE distorts the truth by
saying too much;
• LITOTES distorts the truth by saying
too little;
• IRONY distorts the truth by saying
the opposite.
HYPERBOLE [haı‘pə:bəlı] – гипербола
Hyperbole is a deliberate overstatement or
exaggeration, the aim of which is to intensify one
of the features of the object to such a degree as
will show its utter absurdity (Galperin).
E.g. Those three words (Dombey and Son) conveyed the
one idea of Mr. Dombey’s life. The earth was made for
Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and moon were
made to give them light. Rivers and seas were formed to
float their ships…stars and planets circled in their orbits
to preserve inviolate a system of which they were the
centre (Dickens)
LANGUAGE/ TRITE HYPERBOLE
Hyperboles used in everyday speech which became
stereotyped through frequent repetition.
• Trite hyperboles hardly affect the listener
emotionally.
E.g. I was scared to death.
I haven’t seen you for ages.
A thousand pardons.
I’d give the world to see him.
EXPRESSIVE HYPERBOLE
• An expressive hyperbole is an exaggeration which is
utterly impossible, contrary to common sense and
stunning by its suddenness (Skrebnev).
• It is often employed to create a humorous effect.
E.g. One after the other those people lay down on the
ground to laugh – and two of them died (Twain).
E.g. There I took out my pig…and gave him such a kick
that he went out the other end of the alley, twenty
feet ahead of his squeal (O.Henry)
LITOTES [‘laıtəuti:z] - литота
• LITOTES is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of
negative constructions (Galperin).
• LITOTES is expressing an idea by means of negating the
opposite idea (Skrebnev).
E.g. WITH HIS ASSISTANCE → WITHOUT HIS ASSISTANCE →
NOT WITHOUT HIS ASSISTANCE
(LITOTES)
• Double negation results in affirmative meaning, but this
meaning is weakened:
E.g. It’s not a bad thing. – It’s a good thing.
He is no coward. – He is a brave man.
LITOTES – A PURPOSEFUL UNDERSTATEMENT
• LITOTES creates a purposeful understatement
and the negative constructions produce a
significant effect on the readers/listeners
because they have an additional connotation.
E.g. I’m happy. – I’m not unhappy (=I’m happy, but my
happiness is spoilt by something)
He has taste. – He is not without taste (= He has
taste, but…..)
LITOTES AS A MODE OF EXPRESSING IDEAS
Litotes is more common in English than in Russian and
is associated with a specifically English mode of
expressing ideas through understatement and
evasiveness.
Charles Bally: negative sentences are used with the
purpose of “refusing to affirm”.
E.g. And Captain Trevelyan was not overpleased about
it (A. Christie).
E.g. “You wouldn’t exactly call Warly heavily
industrialized” (J. Braine).
LITOTES IN PUBLICISTIC STYLE
His trick of seizing upon a phrase that has struck him
(erroneously, as a rule) as a happy one, and doggedly
sticking to it thereafter is one typical of a speaker
who lacks all confidence. On Monday it was ‘not
unpromising’; three times he declared that various
aspects of the Summit preparations were ‘not
unpromising’, and I was moved in the end to
conclude that Mr. Lloyd is not unpoor Foreign
Secretary, and that if he should not unshortly leave
that office the not unbetter it would be for all of us,
not unhim included (The Spectator, 1958)
Irony [‘aırənı] - ирония
E.g. She turned with the sweet smile of an
alligator
• Irony consists in stating the contrary of what is
meant (E. Partridge).
• Irony is a stylistic device based on the
simultaneous realization of dictionary and
contextual meanings which stand in
opposition to each other (Galperin).
IRONY AND CONTEXT
Irony heavily depends on context. The context is
arranged so that the word positively charged is
understood as a negative qualification (‘praise for
blame’)
E.g. A fine friend you are! (Хорош друг, нечего
сказать!)
Very seldom negative concepts are used approvingly
(‘blame for praise’).
E.g. Clever bastard! (Вот гад дает!)
TYPES OF IRONY
• Verbal irony
With verbal irony it is always possible to
indicate the word whose contextual meaning
opposes the dictionary meaning.
E.g. It’s a downpour again. What nice weather
we’re having today!
TYPES OF IRONY
• Sustained irony
The effect of irony is created by a number of statements which
contain the contradiction between the said and the implied.
E.g. I like a parliamentary debate,
Particularly when ‘tis no too late.
I like the taxes, when they’re not too many;
I like a seacoal fire, when not too dear;
I like a beef-steak, too, as well as any…
I like the weather, when it is not rainy,
That is I like two months of every year (‘Beppo’ Byron)
FUNCTIONS OF IRONY
• It can produce a humorous effect.
• It can convey irritation, displeasure, regret
E.g. How clever of you!
• It can be used with the aim of critical evaluation of
the phenomenon.
E.g. [about life in a workhouse] “What a noble
illustration of the tender laws of this favoured
country! – they let the paupers go to sleep!”
(Dickens)
IRONY AS A HUMOROUS ASSESSMENT
The term ‘irony ‘ is often used to denote a humorous
assessment of the person/thing/event described without
direct opposition of ideas or notions.
The stylistic opposition is marked by using high-flown
linguistic units to render insignificant topics.
E.g. Montmorency’s ambition in life is to get in the way and be sworn
at. If he can …be a perfect nuisance,…and have things thrown at his
head, then he feels his day has not been wasted. To get somebody
to stumble over him, and curse him steadily…is his highest aim and
object; and, when he has succeeded in accomplishing this, his
conceit becomes quite unbearable (Jerome).