Using Theories in Social Theory (Part II) Nigel Horner

(based upon slides developed by Don Blackburn)

 It is difficult to understand modern debates without knowing how they developed;  This lecture will focus on two ‘world views’ – Modernism and Postmodernism;  We will try to link ethical questions into the debates about knowledge

 17 th and 18 th Centuries  Scientific revolution  Technical revolution  Economic revolution  Political revolutions  The power of Science and Reason (as a way of thinking OR a way of knowing) preferred to superstition and traditional ways of thinking.

 Why was Rationality so attractive?

   Science and technology appeared to deliver ‘The Good Life’ (i.e. “Progress”) - We may have problems - but rational science and technology can resolve them.

Rational political systems are democratic and progressive.

Rational economic systems deliver economic progress – through capitalism.

 KEY POINT The Enlightenment saw science as a route to truth - banishing superstition.

 Science as the source of ‘true knowledge’, neutral and value free.

 Reason in the form of

Rational Practice

thinking that supports all of these.

is the way of

 Science and Technology delivered progress  Disease conquered;  Food production increased;  Good quality housing;  Energy available for all;  Transport

 Steamships  Trains  Flight  Mechanisation of travel  Increased speed  Moving large numbers of people around  ‘Shrinking’ world

For some writers, science was not simply applied to objects and things “The whole system of civilised life may be … symbolised by a foot rule, a set of weights and a clock”

 A mediaeval invention  regulated the religious day  represents a human purpose  involved in a change in sense of ‘self’  before the clock - by the rhythms of nature;  after the clock - by an artificial process, an abstract, quantified process.

  Was ist Erklärung? (What is Enlightenment?) “Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self incurred immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one's own understanding without the guidance of another.”  “Sapere aude! Have courage to use your own understanding!” (Dare to know!)  This is an argument for individuals making up their own minds, being independent, autonomous, free.

 The reasonable individual making rational choices for her/himself in the world;  Citizen NOT subject;  Politically and economically FREE choices; to make their own

 Extension of franchise  New political states  New political parties

 Dominance of science, technology;  Mass production, mass administration;  linked to

calculating

economic system (capitalism);  Development of the professions  Professional technique involved in solving social problems;  Regular, repeatable practice;  Uniform application of expertise;

 The application of

rational thinking

to social problems  Social problems and issues can be dealt with

technically

think about housing, planning, population control;  efficiency became the criterion for resolving problems.

 Against priests and vicars;  Reason against Superstition;  ‘God is Dead’;  The secular state;

The plague, famine, wars

The Enlightenment focus on rationality and the end of superstition and religion created a key problem -

How do we resolve ethical issues if we no longer have religious authority to tell us what to do?

 Recognised the problem;  Wanted to approach ethical questions rationally;  You should always act in such a way that you can turn your decision into a general rule that should apply to other people

 Ethics are based upon the nature of human beings;  Because humans are rational beings - they have a duty to behave rationally when it comes to ethical decisions;  When we act for reasons we commit ourselves to beliefs about what any person would have a reason to do; i.e., we commit ourselves to universal norms or principles applying to all rational persons.

Rational beings have a duty to be rational ethical beings; "Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never as a means only”.

The Enlightenment appeared to promise much from being rational and following scientific principles, but a few minutes reflection on 20 th and 21 st Century  Nazi Germany?

 Mechanisation of war?

 Motor car?

 BSE and food supply?

 Nuclear power?

 Genetics?

 Surveillance of the population?

 ‘Democratic deficit’?

 Consumer Culture;  Commodification of all aspects of our lives;  Standardisation and rational planning of all aspects of our lives

 Inequality, ‘social exclusion’;  International inequality;  Pollution and global warming?

 Reaction to ‘modern society’  In other words people are more sceptical nowadays about the benefits of science and rational thinking

 Rational decision making may have helped develop science and technology, commerce, industry.

 But does it help with the old question from Socrates: “How ought we to live?”  In other words is it helpful with ethical questions about our lives as human beings?

 This is a key question for the unit and the essay.