Transcript No Slide Title

Design For Health & Safety
MPD575 DFX
Jonathan Weaver
Development History
• Material Prepared by Cohort 1 (2001)
– Beth Robinson
– Robin Schulz
• Revised by Cohort 1 (2001)
– Dave Chronowski
– Mark Halseth
– Andrew Kernahan
– Roger Maynard
• Edited by Cohort 7 (2006)
– Bill Dowling
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Design for Health & Safety
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Introduction
Manufacturing Hazards
Consumer Products
Automotive Products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Introduction
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Define safety and hazards
Define “designing for health and safety”
Benefits
Historical background
Standards and codes
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Safety
• Safety: a condition which is free from exposure to
danger, injury, or loss
• Safety is said to be a quality of averting or not
causing injuries, danger, or loss
• ‘Safe’ implies freedom from danger
• A ‘safe’ product is not really free from all kinds of
danger under all conditions
• A product can be said to be the safest, even though it
is not absolutely safe
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Hazard
• Hazard: the existence of a danger which one can
foresee but not avoid
• Examples: hazardous waste or hazardous
occupations - dangers that are known to be present
• In this discussion hazard is considered any sort of
threat to personal safety
• Hazards include both foreseeable and avoidable
threats
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Designing for Health & Safety
• The integration of hazard analysis and risk
assessment methods early in the design and
engineering stages and the taking of the
actions necessary so that the risks of injury or
damage are at an acceptable level
• Encompasses facilities, hardware, equipment,
tooling, materials, layout and configuration,
energy controls and environmental concerns
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Why Safety Through Design?
• Main business goal: improve earnings per
share or return on investment
• The following benefits can be achieved if
decisions affecting safety, health and the
environment are integrated into the early
stages of the design process:
– Reduce injuries, illnesses, damage to the
environment
– Improve productivity, operating costs
– Avoid changes to correct the design
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Costs of Injuries and Death
The table below shows the per case average cost of wage and
productivity losses, medical expenses, and administrative
expenses.
Home injuries
Public nonmotor-vehicle injuries
Work injuries
without employer costs
with employer costs
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Death
$750,000
$750,000
Disabling
Injury
$10,000
$7,800
$930,000
$940,000
$24,000
$28,000
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Cost of Motor Vehicle Crashes
Cost of motor vehicle crashes, wage and
productiviity losses, medical expenses,
administrative expenses, motor vehicle damage,
and employer costs
Death
$970,000
Nonfatal Disabling Injury
$35,300
Property Damage Crash
(including nondisabling injuries )
$6,400
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Historical Background
• Initial design efforts were focused on solving a
problem and getting the product to work as intended
• Little attention was paid to the safety aspects of the
design
• Mechanical workplace hazards have existed for
almost 300 years
• Workplace injuries costs increased, causing
legislation to be introduced
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Historical Background
• Workers received compensation insurance for
workplace injuries
• Insurance carriers began the development of
safety improvements in an effort to control
costs
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Standards and Codes
• Standards
– Government
– Industry
– Commercial
• Codes
– Building
– Fire
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Government Standards
• Occupational Safety and Health Administration
– OSHA
• Consumer Product Safety Commission
– CPSC
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
– NHTSA
• Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms
– AF
• Food and Drug Administration
– FDA
• Environmental Protection Agency
– EPA
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Government Standards
• Regulations are initially published in the Federal
Register (common format)
• This publication is issued every day the federal
government is open
• Once approved, they are included in the Code of
Federal Regulations (CFR)
• There are 50 CFR titles covering all aspects of the
federal government
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Industry Standards
• Noted for their individuality
• In the 1990’s there were about 350 standardsgenerating organizations in the U.S.
• Each organization writes standards for their area of
interest and uses its own approach
• Index and Directory of U.S. Industry Standards, a 2
volume set including more than 35,000 documents
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Industry Standards
• Litigation
– The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
issued the ‘Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code’
– The ASME was successfully sued by the maker of
a device used to indicate the liquid level in boilers
– The ASME code unfairly discriminated against this
‘hydrolevel’ device
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Industry Standards
• National Safety Council, founded in 1913,
publishes books and pamphlets regarding
safety considerations for a wide variety of
products
• The NSC keeps statistics on accidents,
including cause, frequency and severity
measures
• Provides input to the organizations that write
the standards
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Industry Standards Other organizations
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
– National electric and fire codes
• Underwriters Laboratories
– independent, not for profit org. founded in 1894
– Was sponsored by insurance underwriters to
“establish, maintain, and operate laboratories for
the examination and testing of devices, systems
and materials to determine their relation to hazards
to life and property”
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Product Standards
• American Lumber Standards are issued by
several regional wood products associations
and contain their rules for the grading of
particular varieties of wood
• Voluntary product standards are developed
under procedure published by the Department
of Commerce in Part 10 of Title 15 of the Code
of Federal Regulations
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Product Standards
• The Voluntary Products Standards program is
administered by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST)
• The purpose of these is to establish nationally
recognized requirements for various products
• Strictly voluntary, do not have the force of law
except when cited as a reference in legal
codes, documents, or contracts
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Building Codes
• Initiated in 1905 by the insurance industry
• The purpose was to improve safety and fire
protection features of a building
• The intent was to reduce loss of life and fire
damage to property through prudent design
considerations
• These codes have the force of law
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Building Codes
• Regional codes
– Western U.S. uses the ‘Uniform Building Code’
issued by the International Conference of Building
Officials originally in 1927 (3 year revision
program)
– Southeastern U.S. uses the Standard Building
Code’ published by the Southern Building Code
Congress International originally in 1945 (annual
revisions)
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Fire Codes
• In 1896, the NFPA issued standard 13 to make
certain automatic sprinkler systems were
properly designed, installed and maintained
• Annually issue the ‘National Fire Codes’
including the sprinkler and electrical codes
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Design for Health and Safety
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Introduction
Manufacturing Hazards
Consumer Products
Automotive Products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Manufacturing Hazards
• Types of Hazards
• Eliminating Hazards
– Design
– Guards and guarding
– Warnings
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Types of Hazards
• Kinematics: Operators can get a part of their
body or clothing, gloves, or tools too close to
mechanical machinery causing great injury
• Energy: Components that store energy such
as springs and counterbalancing weights. Also
conveyors which have large amounts of kinetic
energy which could cause damage to any
object interfering with their motion
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Types of Hazards
• Electrical
– Shock received from short circuits
– Electrical faults can cause fires, resulting in severe
burns or death
• Environmental
– Operators can suffer hearing loss from loud
equipment
• ‘Nip’ points found at various locations on
machinery
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Nip Points
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Eliminating Hazards
• Design the hazard out of the product
• Provide guards for the hazards which cannot
be designed out
• Provide warnings or instructions to alert the
user or operator of the product that a hazard
exists
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Eliminating Hazards Through Design
• Ideally done early in the design stage
• Test samples prior to production to reveal
latent hazards not earlier recognizable
• One of the most common charges brought by
plaintiffs’ attorneys is that the product was not
adequately tested
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Eliminating Hazards Guard & Guarding
• When a hazard cannot be designed out of a
product
• Three main types of guards for machinery:
– fixed guards
– interlocked guards
– adjustable guards
• These protective features are attached to the
machine and can be removed when the
machine is being serviced or changed over
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Eliminating Hazards Example
• The hazard presented by the closing of the
dies in a stamping operation
• The two halves of the die must come together
with sufficient force to change the shape of the
material in a permanent manner
• If any part of the operators body gets caught in
the die, substantial injury could result
• Guards are used to prevent this occurrence
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Eliminating Hazards Locations
• Three common locations:
– The point of operation
– The power transmission system
– All other moving parts
• Guards should be provided for all three
classes of locations and specific regulations
published by OSHA relate to each one of them
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Eliminating Hazards Warnings
• The last and weakest solution is to warn
operators of the existence of the hazard
• A great deal of attention given to the subject of
warnings because of increasing product
liability litigation, charging that inadequate
warnings to the user of a product caused
personal injury or property damage
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Design for Health and Safety
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Introduction
Manufacturing Hazards
Consumer Products
Automotive Products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Consumer Products
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Defined
Banned Products
CPSC Standards
Injury and Death Statistics
Examples of Faulty Consumer Product
Designs
• Recalls
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Consumer Products
• To regulate consumer products, the law set up the Consumer
Product Safety Commission (CPSC) as an independent
agency to accomplish four objectives:
– To protect the public against unreasonable risks of injury
associated with consumer products
– To assist consumers in evaluating the comparative safety of
consumer products
– To develop uniform safety standards for consumer products
and to minimize conflicting state and local regulations
– To promote research and investigation into the causes and
prevention of product-related deaths, illnesses, and injuries
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What are Consumer Products?
• Usually purchased in small quantities
• Distributed through a long channel with many
steps between the manufacturer and
consumer
• Heavy amount of advertising
• Usually used around the home, in a residential
or social setting
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Consumer Products
• The Consumer Product Safety Act defines
consumer products as:
– any article, or component thereof, produced or
distributed for sale to a consumer for personal use,
consumption, or enjoyment in or around a
permanent or temporary household or residence,
a school, in recreation or otherwise
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What Consumer Products Are
• 15,000 types of consumer products
• From coffee makers, to toys, to lawn mowers,
to fireworks
• Child resistant packaging of food and drugs
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What Consumer Products Are Not
• Does not include industrial or commercial products
• Does not include food, drugs, cosmetics, boats,
aircraft, tobacco products, motor vehicles and their
equipment, pesticides, and firearms
• Not included because they are regulated by other
federal laws (Department of Transportation, Food and
Drug Administration, Environmental Protection
Agency, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, and Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and
Firearms)
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Food and Drug Administration
• Food
– Food-borne Illness, Nutrition, Dietary Supplements...
• Drugs
– Prescription, Over-the-Counter, Generic...
• Medical Devices
– Pacemakers, Contact Lenses, Hearing Aids...
• Biologics
– Vaccines, Blood Products...
• Animal Feed and Drugs
– Livestock, Pets...
• Cosmetics
– Safety, Labeling...
• Radiation-Emitting Products
– Cell Phones, Lasers, Microwaves
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Banned Products
• Unstable refuse bins
– In June 1978 metal bins of 1 cubic yard capacity or
larger which could tip over and crush young
children were banned. About 700,000 bins had to
be taken out of service or modified to meet stability
requirements
• Extremely flammable contact adhesives
– In January 1978 contact adhesives which had a
flash point of -20 degrees F or lower were banned
because of extreme risk of accidental ignition of
the vapors from the solvent
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Banned Products
• Lead-containing paint
– After February 1978 paint having 0.06 percent or
more of lead content in the dried film and
consumer products such as toys or furniture
finished with such paints were banned. The
hazard was lead poisoning resulting from very
young children eating bits of the lead-containing
paint
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Banned Products
• Asbestos-containing patching compounds
– These were banned after June 11,1978, because
the loose asbestos particles could be inhaled
causing respiratory disorders
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Banned Products
• Lawn Darts
– These were banned after December 1988. Lawn
darts were 4 to 8 ounce metal shafts about 12
inches long and fitted with fins along with their rear
portions. They were used outdoors, being
launched upward with an underhanded throw to
land on a target area located several feet away.
The dart could fall onto the head or shoulders of a
person, causing a severe puncture-type injury.
More than 600 injuries were reported each year.
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CPSC Standards
• Since the Regulatory Reform Act, the number
of banned products has drastically dropped
• The preferred method of regulation is CPSC
Standards, using inputs from industry, safety
organizations, technical societies, and
government agencies
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Injury and Death Statistics
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Trampoline
Nursery Products
Amusement Rides
All Terrain Vehicles
Fireworks
Toys
Go-Karts
Halogen Floor Lamps
Shopping Cart
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Trampoline
• Trampoline related injuries have almost tripled since
1991
• In 1999, CPSC estimates that almost 100,000 people
were treated in US hospital emergency rooms
• In 1991, by comparison, an estimated 37,500 people
were treated
• Since 1990, CPSC has received reports of 11 deaths
relating to trampoline use
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Trampoline
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Trampoline
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Nursery Products
Nursery product related injuries and deaths
to children under age five by product
Product Category
Total
Infant carriers and car seats
(excludes motor vehicle accidents)
Strollers and carriages
Cribs
Baby walkers and jumpers
High chairs
Changing tables
Baby gates and barriers
Play yards
Other
Estimated
Total Deaths
Injuries CY 1999 1995-1997
65,400
261
12,820
18
12,600
10,240
9,340
6,660
2,120
1,470
1,470
8,680
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106
8
5
1
0
42
69
54
Nursery Products
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Amusement Rides
• An estimated 10,400 hospital emergency room
treated injuries occurred in 1999
– 7,000 involving fixed rides
– 3,000 involving mobile rides
• An estimated 23.5 injuries per million
attendance occurred at fixed site parks in 1999
• The estimated annual average number of nonoccupational fatalities from 1987 through 1998
was 4.3 fatalities each year
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Amusement Rides
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All Terrain Vehicles
• From 1982 to 1999 there were a total of 3,717 deaths
from ATVs
• 1,310 victims (35% of the 3,716 total) were under 16
years of age
• 569 victims (15% of total) were under 12 years of age
• The percent of fatalities has increased from 7% or
less prior to 1985 to 9% percent for 1999
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All Terrain Vehicles
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Fireworks
• CPSC has reports of 16 deaths from fireworks in
1999
• Fireworks devices were involved in an estimated
8,500 injuries treated in US hospital emergency
rooms in 1999
• There was no increase in injuries in 1999 despite a
20% increase in the dollar value of fireworks imported
into the US
• About three times as many males were injured as
females
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Fireworks
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Toys
• In 1999, there were an estimated 152,600 toy related
injuries treated in US hospital emergency rooms
• 78% of injuries for 1999 were to children under 15
years of age
• 46% were to children under 5
• Most of the victims (95%) were treated and released
from the hospital
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Toys
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Go-Karts
• An estimated 125,900 go-kart related injuries were
treated in US hospital emergency rooms from 19851996
• An average of 10,500 injuries per year
• About 81,000 injuries (65%) were to children under
15 years old
• The hospitalization rate for all ages was 5% and 3%
for under 15 years of age.
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Go-Karts
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Halogen Floor Lamps
• From January 1992 to March 30, 1998, CPSC has
received 260 reports of incidents involving halogen
torchiere-style floor lamps
• 232 were fire related
• Tubular halogen bulbs between 300 & 500 watts
– Represents temperatures from 970 degrees Fahrenheit to
1,200 degrees
– A 75 watt incandescent bulb operates at about 260 degrees
and a 150 watt bulb at 340 degrees
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Halogen Floor Lamps
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Shopping Carts
• An annual average of 21,600 children, 5 years
old and younger were treated in US hospital
emergency rooms from 1985-1996
• There has been a significant increase in the
number of these injuries between 1985 and
1996
• An annual average of 12,800 of these children
were treated for falls from the carts
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Shopping Carts
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Faulty Consumer Product Designs
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Women’s shoes
Sports equipment
Ladders
Power tools and equipment
Toys
Stairs and stairways
Mechanical power presses
Food preparation equipment
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Women’s Shoes
• Failure: women who fall, trip, or loose their balance
when their heel suddenly separates from the sole of
the shoe
• Heels are typically attached to the soles with special
barbed nails which have been heat treated
• Common method uses five nails
• While style & aesthetics play a major part in the
design, the typical heel attachment method is not
adequate
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Sports Equipment
• One example is of a practice weight slipped over the
handle of a softball bat that flew off and struck
someone in the face
• The weight was a slug of cast iron in the shape of a
doughnut
• The manufacturer designed one for softball bats and
one for baseball bats
• The user made a mistake and used the wrong one
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Sports Equipment
• A foreseeable misuse of the product was
missed by the designer
• A small change in the diameter could have
designed the hazard out of the product
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Ladders
• One of the leading causes of household
injuries is falls from portable ladders
• About 90,000 ladder-related injuries take place
each year
• An ANSI committee, the A14 committee,
worked to develop an acceptable standard
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Ladders
• Three different classes of portable ladders
were established, depending on their loadcarrying capabilities and their intended use
– Class I: light duty, for use around the home
– Class II: medium duty
– Class III: heavy-duty industrial ladders
• Minimum dimensions were established for certain
components and performance tests were prepared to
ensure structural integrity
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Ladders
• Clear, definite, and unambiguous instructions
for the proper use, care and storage of
portable ladders were prepared
• Comprehensive warning labels were
developed
• Specifications for where the labels needed to
be placed and how durable they needed to be
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Power Tools & Equipment
• Principle hazard in these tools is accidental
contact with the working element of the tool
• Although portable circular saws had a guard
over the upper half of the blade, the lower half
was commonly left exposed
• If the saw was set aside with the blade still
moving, the saw could “walk” rapidly and strike
the user
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Power Tools & Equipment
• A guard was finally developed which used a
spring-loaded visor to cover the lower part of
the blade
• As soon as the saw blade came out of the cut,
the spring returned the guard to the closed
position
• This solution has been widely adopted for
portable circular saws
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Toys
• Toys that have resulted in injuries from
predictable hazards that should have been
revealed by a routine test program
– Double barreled pop gun
– Water gun
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Double Barreled Pop Gun
• Pump and lever action compressed a charge
of air, contained with a cork
• When the trigger was pulled, the air
discharged with a loud bang
• The expelled cork was caught by a fitting glued
to the end of the barrel so that the pump action
could recycle it for the next shot
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The Failure
• A 4 year old was playing the toy. He cocked
the gun, and fired. He accidentally hit his
brother between the eyes with the corks and
the retaining fitting
• The glue joint between the fitting and the gun
barrel had failed
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Water Gun
• This water gun could hold about a quart of water
• Rubber tubing was closed off at its lower end by a
metal clip, and was fitted with a filling valve at the top
• It was loaded under pressure by attaching the valve
to the end of a garden hose
• The valve closed when the gun was full
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The Failure
• If the user tried to fill the gun beyond its
capacity, they could get hit by the clip that held
the bottom end closed
• Overfilling was a predictable thing for young
kids to attempt and was overlooked by the
designer
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Stairs and Stairways
• Can be very hazardous
• Most of the hazards are easily identifiable and
can be reduced or eliminated by proper
attention to design detail
• Design detail requirements for interior and
exterior stairs are included in local, state and
national building codes
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Stairs and Stairways
• Hazards:
– Lack of uniformity in the height of the risers and
the depth of the stair treads
– Lack of suitable handrails
– Inadequate overhead clearance
• Requirements for each of these hazards exist
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Mechanical Power Presses
• One example is of a small vertical-stroke machine
used to punch holes in paper
• The operator presses the foot pedal and the paper
was cut is less than half a second
• Although there was a guard, the operator could reach
around to remove an obstruction and still press the
foot control
• The operator lost two fingertips
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Food Preparation Equipment
• Example: Food processors
• A switch cuts off the power when the lid is opened
• There was an opening in a particular design that
allowed the user to fit their hand into - the user lost
three finger tips
• Later versions of the machine incorporated this
obvious design improvement
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Food Preparation Equipment
• Other examples
– Meat cutting saws: Even with a push piece and
warnings, there still is not an effective blade guard
to protect the user’s hands
– Dough brakes that are small rolling mills bakers
use to roll out chunks of dough: If the bakers push
the dough too far forward, the fingers or hands can
be injured. The table was extended to prevent the
user from being able to reach into the ‘nip’ point. A
pressure bar in front of the operator will shut off the
machine is they get too close to the table.
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Recalls
• Protects the public from the unreasonable risk
of injury or death
• Consumers can report unsafe products
– On-line at…
• General complaints ( http://www.recalls.gov/ )
• Food & drug complaints ( http://www.fda.gov/ )
• Business complaints ( http://www.ftc.gov/ )
– General list of agencies
• http://www.cpsc.gov/federal.html
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High Chair Recall
11/27/00 WASHINGTON,
D.C. - In cooperation
with the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety
Commission (CPSC),
Cosco Inc., of
Columbus, Ind., is
voluntarily recalling
about one million
Options 5 High Chairs
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The Failures
• In the recline position, the seats can separate
from the frame and fall to the ground
• In the upright position, the seats can slip from
their set height position to the lowest position
or can fall to the ground
• Additionally, some seats were sold with a
metal restraint anchor that can slip through the
back of the seat allowing the child to fall to the
ground
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The Injuries
• Infants and toddlers can suffer head, face and bodily
injuries
• Cosco and CPSC have received 168 reports of
incidents involving the high chairs' seats or restraints,
including 57 injury reports, primarily to the head and
face
• Two children reportedly suffered slight concussions;
twelve children were monitored for head injuries; and
others suffered swollen eyes, bloody noses and lips,
bumps and bruises
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The Resolution
• Cosco is offering consumers two types of
repair kits, depending on the date their high
chair was manufactured
• To prevent seat separation, all kits will contain
a redesigned handle that stays out and fits
over the frame each time the seat is used in
the recline position
• In many incidents in the recline position, the
handle was not over the frame of the high chair
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L.L. Bean Inc. Announce Recall of
Toddlers' Slippers
• The draw-cord around the ankle of these slippers can
break and release the toggle used to tighten the
draw-cord
• The toggle is a choking hazard to young children
• L.L. Bean has received one report of a 12
month-old baby
pulling the toggle
off of his slipper
• No injuries
were reported
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Kellogg Announce Recall of Toy Cars
Inside Boxes of Cereal
• The tires can detach from the wheels of these
cars, posing a choking hazard for young
children
• Kellogg has received two
reports of the tires
detaching from the wheels
of these toy cars
• No injuries have
been reported
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Design for Health & Safety
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Manufacturing Hazards
Consumer Products
Automotive Products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Automotive
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
– NHTSA is responsible for reducing deaths, injuries and
economic losses resulting from motor vehicle crashes
– NHTSA investigates safety defects in motor vehicles,
sets and enforces fuel economy standards, helps
states and local communities reduce the threat of
drunk drivers, promotes the use of safety belts, child
safety seats and air bags, investigates odometer fraud,
establishes and enforces vehicle anti-theft regulations
and provides consumer information on motor vehicle
safety topics.
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Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards
(FMVSS) and Regulations
• Manufacturers of motor vehicle and equipment
items must conform and certify compliance
• FMVSS 209 was the first standard to become
effective on March 1, 1967
• New standards and amendments to existing
standards are published in the Federal
Register
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FMVSS
• These Federal safety standards are
regulations written in terms of minimum safety
performance requirements for motor vehicles
or items of motor vehicle equipment. These
requirements are specified in such a manner
"that the public is protected against
unreasonable risk of crashes occurring as a
result of the design, construction, or
performance of motor vehicles and is also
protected against unreasonable risk of death
or injury in the event crashes do occur."
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FMVSS
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Crash Avoidance
Crashworthiness
Post-crash Standards
Other Regulations
Labeling and Consumer Information
Requirements
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Sample Form
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Sample Form
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Sample Form
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Federal Lighting Equipment Locations
Requirements
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Safety Recalls
• NHTSA is responsible for the administration of
national safety recalls by manufacturers or
distributors of motor vehicles and items of
motor vehicle equipment where a safety defect
or noncompliance with a FMVSS has been
determined
• The agency also conducts investigations of
alleged safety defects and test for compliance
with FMVSS
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Design for Health and Safety
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Introduction
Manufacturing Hazards
Consumer Products
Automotive Products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Key Principles
• Industrial and commercial products
• Labels
• Safety Standard (SS) examples
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Walk behind lawnmowers
Cigarette lighters
Residential garage door operators
Bicycle helmets
Swimming pool slides
Clothing
Full size baby cribs
Matchbooks
Architectural glazing materials
Toys
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Industrial & Commercial Products
• Effective October 31,1989, all machinery and
equipment are required by OSHA to provide
lockouts
– Lockouts secure the equipment in such a manner
that it cannot be started by someone other than the
person servicing the equipment
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Industrial & Commercial Products
• Zero Energy State
– Requires that the equipment designer recognize
that start-up operations can result in energy
storage, which can cause injury to the operator
“But officer, I didn’t know the gun was loaded”
– Designer must protect the user of the equipment
from the consequences of the release of
unexpected energy
– Springs and stored capacitive charges are
common sources of energy
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Industrial & Commercial Products
• Design guards and lock-outs such that it is
impossible for the operator to get any part of
their body into the danger zone and still
operate the machine
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Criteria Designers Can Use For Assessing
the Requirement for a Warning Label
• List the intended and foreseeable uses of the product
• Determine the nature of the hazards connected with
each use
• Assess the possibility of injury to persons or of
damage to property because of an accident involving
the hazard
• Estimate the probability that such an accident will
take place
• The severity of the resulting injury or damage
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Human Factors with Respect to
Warnings
• Human factors research has shown that an
effective warning must:
– Attract the person’s attention immediately
– Be strong enough to be clear and convincing
– Show how to avoid exposure
• The warning must be placed where it can be
easily seen in connection with the related
hazard & must contain graphic symbols which
alert the user
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Warnings
• Warnings found in owners manuals are not
very effective
• Verbal warnings can be quickly forgotten
• No substitute for a written warning located
near the hazard
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Key Graphic Symbols
• Danger: most forceful and exciting; to be used when
it is 100% certain that exposure to the hazard will
result in severe or fatal injury to the user
• Warning: Probability of severe injury or damage is
less than 100%, but the possibility of severe injury is
present
• Caution: Probability of injury is less than 100%, the
possibility for sever or fatal injury is absent, but minor
injury is probable
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Colors
• Most effective to least
– Red, orange, yellow, black
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Should not use blue, green or purple
Consider the background color
Black on white or yellow is highly visible
Red on white is only fair
Red on yellow or red on green are
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Shapes of Labels
• Rounded or softly curved boundaries have less
attention-getting value
• Use shapes with square corners
• Rectangles are the best choice
• Triangles and squares are the next best
choices
• Warning labels with five or more sides are
seldom used on industrial equipment or
consumer products
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Examples
• Power lawn mowers may use the warning:
– Do NOT place hands or feet under deck.
• This warning does not let the user know the
nature of the consequences of not following
the instructions
• Suggested modification:
– Do NOT place hands or feed under deck.
– Your fingers or toes will be cut off.
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Automotive Example
• Warning on visor:
• Warning on inside of visor:
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Convertible Top Warning Label
• Label located near release latch for top (yellow
on black):
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Other Label Examples
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Safety Standard for Walk Behind Power
Lawn Mowers
• Effective on December 31, 1981
• Prescribes safety requirements
– Labeling
– Performance
• Intended to reduce the risk of injury to consumers
caused by contact, primarily the hand and foot, with
the rotating blade of the mower
– Prevent the blade from operating unless the operator
actuates the control
– Require continuous contact with the control
– Cause the blade in motion to come to a complete stop
within 3.0 seconds after release of the control
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SS for Cigarette Lighters
• Effective after July 12, 1994
• Disposable and novelty lighters
• Resistant to successful operation by children
younger than 5 years of age
• Applies to both manufactured and imported
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SS for Residential Garage Door
Operators
• Effective after January 1993
• Intended to reduce the risk of fire, electric
shock, or injury to persons, including
entrapment protection
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SS for Bicycle Helmets
• Effective after March 1995, updated March
1999
• All bicycle helmets must be capable of meeting
the following requirements/tests:
– Peripheral vision
– Positional stability
– Dynamic strength of retention system
– Impact-attenuation
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SS for Swimming Pool Slides
• Reduce or eliminate the unreasonable risks of death
or injury associated with swimming pool slides
effective after July 1976
• Recommendations regarding the installation,
maintenance, and intended use of swimming pool
slides
• Risks include:
– Quadriplegia and paraplegia resulting from users sliding
down the slide in a head first position and striking the
bottom of the pool
– Leg fractures resulting from feet first entry
– Impact of sliders with other people in the pool
– Falls from the slide ladder
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SS for Clothing
• Guidelines for drawstrings on children's
outerwear
• Flammability requirements
– Class 1: Normal flammability
• Time of flame spread is more than 7 seconds
– Class 2: Intermediate flammability
• Time of flame spread is from 4 to 7 seconds
– Class 3: Rapid and intense burning
• Time of flame spread is less than 4 seconds
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SS for Full Size Baby Cribs
• Requirements for interior dimensions
• Rail height
• Spacing of crib components
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Slats
Spindles
Crib rods
Corner posts
• All wood surfaces shall be smooth and free from
splinters
• No horizontal bar, ledge, projection, or other surface
accessible to a child inside the crib capable of being
used as a toehold
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SS for Matchbooks
• Risks of burn injuries, eye injuries caused by
burning fragments, and fires started by
extinguished batches which had left a lengthy
afterglow period
• Requirements cover:
– Friction location
– Cover shall remain closed
– Matchhead condition
– Matchhead location
• Effective after May 1978
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SS for Architectural Glazing Materials
• Materials include storm doors, bathtub and
shower doors and enclosures, and sliding-type
doors used on patios
– The objective was to reduce the hazards of injury
from glass being broken as a result of human
contact
– Nearly 200,000 lacerations, contusions, abrasions
or other injuries were associated with architectural
glass products each year before the standard in
1977
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SS for Toys:
For Use By Children of Any Age
• No shock or thermal hazards in any electrical
toys
• No toxic materials
For Use By Children Up To Age 8
• Severely limited lead in toy paints
• No heating elements in electronically operated
toys
• No sharp points or sharp edges
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SS for Toys:
For Use By Children Up To Age 3
• Must withstand use and abuse, must be
unbreakable
• No small parts or pieces which could become
lodged in the throat
• Infant rattles must be large enough to not
become lodged in the throat and cannot
separate into small pieces
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Voluntary Safety Standards
• Adopted by the toy industry
• Includes:
– Age and safety labels on toys
– Making squeeze toys and teething rings so large
that they cannot get stuck in an infant’s throat
– Limiting the length of strings on crib and playpen
toys to 12 inches to prevent possible strangulation
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More Standards
• Chests for storing toys are required to have
lids which stay open at any level to prevent the
lid from dropping unexpectedly and striking the
child or trapping them inside the box
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Design for Health and Safety
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Manufacturing hazards
Consumer products
Automotive products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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Case Studies
• Cases submitted as part of a proposal to the
National Safety Council that it create an
Institute for Safety Through Design
• Computer Manufacturer
• Aircraft Manufacturer
• Copier Manufacturer
• Construction and Farming Equipment
Manufacturer
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Computer Manufacturer
• An electronic panel drilling machine was
difficult to operate
• Workers had to bend and reach to perform
tasks, and operator comfort, product quality
and performance suffered
• A study was performed and new machines
designed for better body mechanics were
acquired
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Computer Manufacturer Results
• In the first year, labor costs were reduced by
$270,000
• Yield increased $420,000
• Productivity improved
• Injuries were reduced
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Aircraft Manufacturer
• An assembly operation required standing on a
platform to get visual and physical access to
parts being assembled
• Shoulder strain injuries resulted from installing
operations, done above shoulder level
• Work methods were redesigned
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Aircraft Manufacturer Improvements
• An assembly stand mounted on a hydraulic
height adjustable cart permitted drilling,
riveting and installing parts in a hands-free
operation performed below shoulder height,
with good visual and physical access
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Aircraft Manufacturer Results
• No more strain injuries occurred
• Production increased from 2 to 4 units a week
• Estimated annual cost savings was $52,800
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Copier Manufacturer
• A copier machine with highly repetitive
assembly tasks was estimated to have
workers’ compensation costs 2.5 times higher
than the corporate average
• A redesign study showed how hazards could
be reduced & how the design could be
simplified
– reduction in the number of parts
– use of standard parts
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Copier Manufacturer Results
• Substantial reduction in production costs
• Reduced hazards
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Construction & Farming Equipment
Manufacturer
• Backhoe assembly line
• The work done inside the operator’s cab
caused the worker to take stressful and
awkward positions and repetitive hand tool use
• The workers experienced back injuries and
only young employees would accept this
assignment
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Construction & Farming Equipment
Manufacturer
• A team worked to redesign the operations
• The work could now be done prior to
installation of components in the cab, allowing
the assembler to work in a good upright
position
• Results:
– Major reduction in production time & hazards
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Design for Health and Safety
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
Manufacturing hazards
Consumer products
Automotive products
Key Principles
Case Studies
References
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References
• Engineering Design for Safety, Thomas A. Hunter
1992
• Safety Through Design, Wayne C. Christensen and
Fred A. Manuele
• www.safetyonline.com
• www.cpsc.gov
• www.ftc.gov/ftc/consumer.htm
• www.osha.gov
• www.nationalsafetycouncil.org
• www.consumer.gov
• www.detnow.com/community/recalls
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