Transcript FALLACIES - Luzerne County Community College

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II. IRRELEVANT
INFORMATION
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IRRELEVANT INFORMATION
IRRELEVANT
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immaterial, unrelated, inappropriate
off-topic, extraneous, beside the point
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The data is NOT germane to the present case.
One of the premises is not relevant to the
conclusion.
Not related to
Often diversionary.
the argument at hand
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IRRELEVANT INFORMATION
DIVERSIONARY TACTICS
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They introduce ideas that are off-topic.
Their data is NOT germane to the present
case.
Diversions, Distractions
from the argument at hand
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1) AD BACULUM:
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intimidation
threat of harm:
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physical or psychological *
economical, political, environmental
extortion, blackmail
Baculum:
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backed into a corner
with your back against the wall
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*EXAMPLES of AD BACULUM:
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“If citizens don’t start patronizing downtown stores,
then businesses will be forced to close and then the city
will be in ruin.”
“If you don’t (believe in God, convert to our religion,
illegalize that practice), then you’ll burn in Hell!
“... In any case, I know your phone number and I
know where you live. Have I mentioned I am licensed
to carry concealed weapons?”
“If we make abortions illegal, women will be getting
butchered again in back alleys.” (ad misericordiam,
slippery slope)
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2) AD HOMINEM:
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*name calling
personal attack, insults
attack the person, not the facts, issue, or
argument/claim
a way to avoid dealing with the issue (*diversion)
Hominem:
“homo” = “man”
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species Homo habilis, erectus, neanderthalensis,
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sapiens
foreign words for man: hombre
or hommé
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1.
*PLEASE NOTE*
A bad person does not necessarily mean a bad
argument (conclusion, point).
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2.
(even a broken clock…)
Accusations against the person are NOT a
fallacy IF the characteristics under attack are
relevant to the argument.
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For example, if a politician is irresponsible &
dishonest in her/his personal life, then it is reasonable
to think that s/he may be the same in public office.
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*EXAMPLES of AD HOMINEM:
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“What does he know; look at the way he’s
dressed.”
“What can a priest tell us about marriage since
he’s never been married himself.” (AA)
“My doctor is overweight, so why should I listen to
anything he has to say.” (Dr. Adkins)
“I won’t see a Jayne Smith movie because she’s a
drug addict.” (private life vs. professional record)
“Since you don’t support gay marriages, you must
be a homophobe.” (racist, sexist)
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*EXAMPLES of AD HOMINEM:
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“You claim that atheists can be moral — yet I happen
to know that you abandoned your wife and children.”
“Hitler would be very proud of you” (in response to
practically any conclusion or decision).
“Therefore, it is perfectly acceptable to kill animals for
food. I hope you won’t argue otherwise, given that
you're quite happy to wear leather shoes.”
“Of course you’d argue that positive discrimination is
a bad thing. You’re white.”
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3) FALLACY of OPPOSITION:
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*name calling
whatever comes from the opposition is
automatically wrong AND detrimental
assumes nothing good could come from those
we oppose
Us vs. Them
EXAMPLE: “Of course you’d say that, you’re
an atheist, hippie, teenager, Democrat ….” (a
member of the opposing group)
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4) GENETIC FALLACY:
 *name calling
 assumes where the idea came from affects
its validity
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country, paper, school
usually geographic
akin to elitism, snobbery
we come from our genes,
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genes  genetic fallacy
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4) GENETIC FALLACY EXAMPLES:
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“The quality of those products is poor because
they come from China (any country).”
“Cars made in the USA (any country) are
junks.”
“Because that idea comes from a community
college, it must be flawed, erroneous, or just
plain wrong.”
*NB: Sometimes this fallacy refers to people – what we could call a “Fall. of the Ancients or Antiquity” – or to a past
time/era or practice/original meaning – “Fall. of Etymology,” so to speak – so that something is good or bad based on who
said it, when it was coined, or where it came from [akin to Arg. Ad Antiquatem & Populum]: (+) Plato said or the Ancients
Greeks believed, (-) Hitler did or this tradition began with the Barbarians ….sometimes called the Appeal to Virtue Fall. or
Fall. of Origins (rather than its current meaning or context)
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5) GUILT by ASSOCIATION:
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birds of a feather stick together
assumes a person’s behaviors must extend to
their friends, to those around them
*EXAMPLES:
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The Red Scare of the 1950s
Obama attack ads: McCain with President Bush
“Everyone who went that party got arrested, even
those who weren’t above the weather.
“Sally abuses drugs, so as her friend you must, too.”
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6) AD MISERICORDIAM:
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an abuse of emotions
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manipulation & obfuscation (*diversion)
irrelevant
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esp. fear, pity, guilt & sex!
evoke pitiful image or situation, without basis, to
distract from the issue
relies wholly on pity (e.g.), instead of proof,
evidence
*BAD PATHOS*
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*EXAMPLES of AD MISERICORDIAM:
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photos of kids: war, famine, AIDS, disaster
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“I couldn’t write my paper because my son,
daughter, mother, girlfriend, neighbor down the
street was sick.”
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“I did not murder my mother and father with an
axe! Please don’t find me guilty; I’m suffering
enough through being an orphan.”
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7) AD POPULUM:
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appeals to the “populace”
biases & prejudices
appeals to tradition, halcyon days
tells people what they want to hear, what they want to
believe
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“working the audience” or “pandering to the audience”
trying to be “popular”
NOT offering proof
SLOGANS and SOUND BITES subvert the reasoning
process because they do not define terms
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which can mean whatever people want them to mean or
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whatever people say they mean
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what exactly are “family values”?!
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*EXAMPLES of AD POPULUM:
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sound bites, slogans, bumper stickers, tee shirts
appeals to patriotism, change for change’s sake
political cartoons, late-night-TV monologues or
punch lines, Comedy Central shows
if it appears on a poster, tee shirt, bumper sticker
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“If guns are outlawed, then only outlaws will have
guns.”
“Zippo. It’s the grand old lighter that’s made right
here in the good ol’ USA.…” (patriotism)
“Freedom isn’t free.” “No blood for oil.”
“Guns don’t kill people; people kill people.”
“Just say no.”
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8) BANDWAGON:
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Argumentum ad numerum
right/valid because popular
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jump on the bandwagon, join the parade
do because others do:
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popularity over proof
appeals or refers to NUMBERS
peer pressure, group or mob identity, conformity
BUT you can be correct even if no one else
agrees with you (Copernicus, Columbus)
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*EXAMPLES of BANDWAGON:
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“Sixty million people can’t be wrong.”
“Over 5 million Americans have already
switched to Grizzly Insurance.”
“Last December, over 100 million people
worldwide tuned in to see a television
phenomenon: don’t be left out when
Knucklehead TV returns in March.”
“Everybody’s doing it anyway, so we might as
well legalize it (lower the age).”
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*Similar to: Argumentum ad numerum AND to Argumentum ad
populum. It consists of asserting that the more people who
support or believe a proposition, the more likely it is that that
proposition is correct. For example:
 “The vast majority of people in this country believe that
capital punishment has a noticeable deterrent effect. To
suggest that it doesn’t in the face of so much evidence is
ridiculous.” Or “All I'm saying is that thousands of people
believe in pyramid power, so there must be something to
it.”
*Similar to: Appeal to Tradition: right/valid because it’s old;
since it’s lasted this long, it should continue. ex: “Since the
Fiesta Club has been an exclusive male-only society since its
founding at the turn of the 20th century, it should continue to
exist in the same manner & form.”
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9) PLAIN FOLKS and SNOB APPEAL:
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valid/right because appeals to a
certain social class
valid/right because it is popular with a certain
class
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opposite of the Genetic Fallacy
These are 2 different fallacies, but same
“coin.”
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9) PLAIN FOLKS and SNOB APPEAL:
Plain Folks Appeal:
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do because the ordinary person
does
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(& avoid the pretensions of snobs)
poor, working classes =
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unpretentious, modest, humble,
unspoiled, salt-of-the-earth
Family Values, hard working,
“bootstraps,” patriotism
False Dichotomy:
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Snob Appeal:
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do because rich/popular/beautiful
do
Poor = simplicity, virtue, and
humility
Rich = excesses, greed, and
immorality
one of the boys, one of you, regular
guy, meat-&-potatoes
keepin’ it real, down home, down
on the farm, boondocks
appeal to poverty
(*celebrity endorsements)
rich, upper classes =
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refined, sophisticated, elegant,
classy, chic, stylish
Money as a sign of superiority,
success
the more expensive something is =
the better it is
the more money a person has = the
better, smarter, more successful
s/he is
uptown, bling, jiggy (originally),
looks like we made it or arrived
(success)
appeal to wealth
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*EXAMPLES of PLAIN FOLKS & SNOB
APPEAL:
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“Why pay fancy salon prices for a shampoo?”
“Family values will return America to world prominence.”
“Mark Twain said, ‘The clothes make the man. Naked
people have little or no influence on society.’ So, if you
want to be a winner, you’ve got to look like a winner, which
means you need a Rolex watch, Italian shoes, and a Lexus
to be successful.”
“Use the deodorant that professional athletes like Illiterate
Joe use.” (appeals to reader’s vanity)
Joe the Plumber ads
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*EXAMPLES of PLAIN FOLKS & SNOB
APPEAL:
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Think of 2 diametrically opposed musical genres.
also known as:
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Argumentum ad Lazarum: The fallacy of assuming that
someone poor is sounder or more virtuous than someone
who's wealthier. This fallacy is the opposite of the
Argumentum ad Crumenam (which assumes they’re right
because of they’re wealthy). For example: “Monks are more
likely to possess insight into the meaning of life, as they have
given up the distractions of wealth.”
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10) AD VERECUNDIAM:
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inappropriate use of authority
assumes that because a person is an expert in
one field that s/he is an expert in another
poor or irrelevant (“unwarranted”) credentials
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wrong field of expertise
*celebrity endorsements
OR
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the use of an obscure, hard to find source
hard to find = hard to refute
*BAD ETHOS*
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*EXAMPLES of AD VERECUNDIAM:
Bad:
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“I play a doctor on TV, so take this new OTC pill.”
“Isaac Newton was a genius and he believed in God, so
you should, too.”
“Dr. Housenick claims stem cell research for the
development of cures for various diseases is (is not) a
worthy venture.”
“Because my parents were unavailable, I asked my
English teacher for permission to stay out late.”
Good:
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“Dr. Stephen Hawking has concluded that black holes
give off radiation; therefore, there is a strong chance
that they exist.”
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11) RED HERRING:
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*diversion
skirt the issue; obfuscate the truth
use an irrelevant point or a side issue to lead
away from the issue at hand
a false scent
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*EXAMPLES of RED HERRING:
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“Sure, the Chargers had a bad year, but what
about the Redskins.”
“While it may be true that we withheld vital
information from the public regarding the
dangerous side effects of our products, while it
may be true that we sought ways to enhance our
products with addictive substances, and while it
may be true that we profited immensely from all
this, have you taken into consideration the fact
that we have given bottled water to disaster
victims and other acts of community
involvement?”
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*EXAMPLES of RED HERRING:
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Past students have brought up crime shows,
mysteries, and even some horror movies that use
the Red Herring as a literary device to divert
readers’/viewers’ attention away from the real
killer:
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They set up one character to be the criminal and then
(surprise!) it turns out to be someone else.
A Pup Named Scooby-Doo even had a character
called Red Herring because of this:
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12) STRAWMAN ARGUMENT:
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a.k.a. Weak Opponent
a.k.a. Scarecrow Argument
*diversion, name calling
Think of a person beating up a scarecrow.
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not much of a fight
setting up an easy target to make yourself look
good
like:
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Tu Quoque
Ad Hoc
False Dilemma
Reductio ad Absurdum
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(A) EASY TARGET
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invent or use a convenient opponent that can be attacked (or
applauded) … without fear of retaliation
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an easy target
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Britney Spears, KKK, Nazis or Hitler, POTUS
a label
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refer to a generic/vague group or label as proof, illustration
no real person involved
no true subject of the argument is identified
no proof is offered
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(make statement as if it were an established fact without establishing it as
fact)
label = unfair, inaccurate, manufactured solely for the argument
stereotypes, overgeneralizations
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(*based on personal biases/prejudices)
could be positive group:
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the heroic war dead, brave immigrants
(**no specific person indicated**)
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(B) EXAGGERATION or CARICATURE:
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set up merely to attack or to make yourself look good (right,
smarter, stronger) an exaggerated or caricatured version of your
opponent's position,
set up to attack your opponent’s weakest argument, one s/he is
not even offering
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put words into the opponent’s mouth **
like Reductio ad Absurdum
EX: think Eddie Murphy as Axel Foley or Donkey
EX: Responding to an opposing politicians assertion that the country should no
longer fund the “Star Wars” program, the junior congresswoman from Missouri
used the following Straw Man argument: “I strongly disagree with Senator
Smith’s argument to rescind our funding. I can't understand why she wants to
leave us defenseless like that.”
EX: Not only is it a False Analogy and Loaded Language argument, but it is also
a Straw Man argument to exaggerate or twist the opposition’s position in order to
draw a connection or comparison between s/he and Hitler.
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*EXAMPLES of STRAWMAN:
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Richard Nixon’s 1952 Checkers speech (weak argument)
“kids/students today” (no real kid/student)
“moral majority” (who are these people?)
“welfare cheats” (do they really exist?)
“liberal media” (is it really? all? proof?)
“To be an atheist, you have to believe with absolute certainty
that there is no God. In order to convince yourself with
absolute certainty, you must examine all the Universe and all
the places where God could possibly be. Since you obviously
haven't, your position is indefensible.” (weakest argument)
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13) TU QUOQUE: (too kwo-kway)
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“you did it too”
justify actions because accusers are supposedly
guilty of same crime
2 wrongs make 1 right (see AD POPULUM)
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*EXAMPLES of TU QUOQUE:
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“You did it too when you were my age.”
quote: “It’s ok that I dis white people on my
show because they’ve been doing it to us for
years.”
“How can you criticize my driving when
you’ve had five accidents yourself?”
“Why shouldn’t I cheat on my taxes?
Everyone else does.”
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14) OVERSIMPLIFICATION:
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like: Post Hoc, Overgeneralization
overlooks the complexity of an issue
*no critical examination of the issue
narrows complex issue down to single cause
BUT an issue has more than 1 side (more than
2 sides)
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legal, moral, religious, political, racial,
philosophical...
an effect always has more than one reason/cause
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*EXAMPLES of OVERSIMPLIFICATION:
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“Kids are fat because they eat too much
McDonald’s.”
“The only reason we’re at war with Iraq is over
oil.”
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An ad populum statement may say, “No Blood for
Oil!”
“It’s as simple as that.”
“Today’s college students can’t spell because
of spellcheckers on computers.”
END
PART 3B