Transcript Document

Grad 501
Graduate Research Skills
in Science & Engineering
By Prof.Dr. Osman YILMAZ
Fundamental characteristics of science,
technology and scientists: Scientific thinking skills
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
2
 a particular way of understanding the natural
world.
 a systematic process of seeking or producing
knowledge.
 it generally involves:
* observation and problem definition
* development of hypothesis,
* continuous testing and extensive peer review
* development of theories, laws or principles
 benefits from some other human values like
* curiosity,
* Creativity
* imagination,
* positive attitude.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
3
Main features of
Science
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
4
Main features of Science
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
Science assumes that the
universe is, as its name
implies, a vast single system
in which the basic rules are
the same everywhere.
Knowledge gained from
studying one part of the
universe is applicable to
other parts.
5
* Science welcomes revision of its
Main features of Science
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
outcomes (laws, theories, principles,
standards etc) by continuous testing
and evaluation, peer review or
replication. In principle, any theory
can change after disproof attempts
and new theories may replace the
old ones.
* Thus, science corrects itself.
Plasticity of thought is the very
essence of the scientific process. In
this sense, science rejects
dogmatism.
* Recall that the "quantum mechanics"
replaced the "classical mechanics
(Newton's Laws)" for studying the
behavior of micro-particles (atoms,
electrons etc) at the beginning of
this century before which the
behavior of all particles (micro- or
macro-) were being explained by
classical mechanics).
* The number of satellites of the sun
is continuously changing.
6
Main features of science.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
Although science welcomes
change, it is not easy to
change the scientific
outcomes once produced by
scientific standards. Note
that a hypothesis is an
insufficiently tested idea
whereas a theory is said to be
a hypothesis resisting
repeated disproof attempts
for years or centuries.
7
* It has limits.
* Who can answer the
question: "What is the true
meaning of life?"
* Or who can provide the
budget to prepare a one ton
single crystal of carbon
(meaning a single piece of
diamond weighing 1000 kg)?
Main features of science
* Or who can say that all the
cancer types can be
treated?
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
8
Science relies on verifiable,
measurable, valid evidences,
i.e., accurate data, at every
stage of scientific process.
Main features of science.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
These evidences can be
gathered by measurements by
and only by our senses, or the
extensions of our senses
(instruments).
9
Main features of science.
Development of science and
scientific knowledge are not
affected by human factors, like
prejudices, biases, hopeful or
wishful thinking, personal
beliefs or priorities or
preferences, nationality, sex,
ethnic origin, age, political
convictions, moral and aesthetic
judgments and choices or
religion.
You like it or not, water has a
boiling point of 100.0 °C every
time, everywhere.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
10
Logic and creativity shapes
the data and analysis into
scientific outcomes.
Main features of science.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
Logical reasoning: testing
the validity of arguments by
applying certain criteria of
inference, demonstration,
and common sense.
11
Main features of science.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
- ability to show the relationships
among phenomena which
normally could be treated as
unrelated.
12
Main features of science.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
Validation of scientific claims by
observation is not enough.
Theories should also have
predictive power.
13
- Science is a collection of various
disciplines with their own subdisciplines.
- Disciplines differ from one another
in many ways, but all are equally
scientific and together make up the
same scientific endeavor.
- This is good for efficient research in
a discipline, but has disadvantages
like difficulty of communication with
the rest of the world.
Main features of science.
- The boundaries between disciplines
are not usually clear-cut.
- Sub disciplines, or new disciplines
emerge from these boundaries.
(Cont’d)
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
14
-
-
(Cont’d)
Science is conducted in
-
universities,
Industry
government.
Motivation for
-
Universities: production of knowledge,
i.e., basic sciences with no immediate
benefit.
Industry: "applied science" for
immediate benefit.
Main features of science.
-
Governments motivate
-
-
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
15
universities for the advancement of
science,
industry, for the advancement of
country.
Today, most universities are also involved
in application of science (production and
application of technology).
The nature of
technology
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
16
- Technology:
"the application of scientific
knowledge for practical
purposes"
The nature of technology.
- It is:
- as old as human history.
- a powerful tool in the
development of civilization.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
17
-
It helps us to change our
world;
-
"changes" may result with
unexpected benefits as much
as unexpected risks and costs.
The nature of technology.

some background is needed
for wise use of technology
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
18
- It gains inspiration, or take
ideas from science.
- It grew out of the accumulated
practical knowledge (knowhow).
(master-apprenticeship)
- Eventually:
master-apprentice system
"engineering".
The nature of technology.
- Engineering:
"systematic application of
scientific knowledge in
developing and applying
technology"
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
19
- Engineering uses
"technology itself" and
"design strategies« in
addition to science
- Science helps to estimate
the behavior of things even
before production, or direct
observation, and suggest
new behavior of things.
The nature of technology.
advanced technologies
strongly depend on science
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
20
- Engineers and scientists think
and work similarly
the nature of "science" and
"engineering" are very similar.
(both use math, creativity,
logic, and reliable evidence.
both have eagerness for
originality)
The nature of technology.
- Scientists make the world
understandable whereas
engineers make it
manupulable.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
21
- Scientists can not answer all
questions, engineers can not
design solutions to all
problems.
- The only difference is that
engineers can affect
(change) the social system
easier than scientists. In
addition to scientific
judgments, their decisions
may involve social or
personal values.
The nature of technology.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
22
The nature of technology.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
23
-
A successful technological
product includes a successful
design; and a successful design
involves a great creativity.
-
There are always some
limitations at
-
the production level,
-
or at the application level,
-
or at the social values level
- absolute constrains
like physical laws, physical
properties etc.
- flexible constraints like
economical, political,
social, ecological, ethical
limitations...
The nature of technology.
- Operation and maintenance
costs
considered at the design stage.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
24
The nature of technology.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
Thus, the technology designs
should be tested before the final
production by using one or more
of:
• the complete product (Beta
versions),
• small scale physical models
(e.g., pilot plants)
• computer simulations (safer,
and cheaper)
• analysis of analogous
systems
• testing of separate
components only
25
Control is necessary for
"proper operation".
Control requires:
• feedback (from sensors or
other sources of
information)
The nature of technology.
• logical comparisons of
measured data to
standards/instructions
• a means for activating
changes
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
26
- Today microprocessors are
widely used as control units.
- Rapid communication and rapid
processing is essential for
complex control systems.
- All control systems require
human control at some point.
Live human intelligence should
be able to interfere automatic
control systems at any level to
prevent for example the false
alarms due to unprogrammed
parameters, or parameters
whose effects are no longer
valid.
The nature of technology.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
27
-
Every design may have
unintended side effects.
-
They may be beneficial or
harmful.
-
Small technologies' side
effects may have significant
cumulative effects.
-
Prediction of side effects is
difficult. Systematic risk
analysis is needed.
-
Risk analysis is complicated
and expensive.
The nature of technology.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
28
Every design may have unintended side
effects.
They may be beneficial (e.g., safer) or
harmful.
(e.g., increasing the unemployment rate with
increasing automation)
Side effects are not limited to nuclear
reactors. Small technologies' side effects
may seem to be ignorable but they may
have significant cumulative effects
The nature of technology.
(like contribution of refrigerators to global
warming).
Prediction of side effects is not easy,
sometimes impossible. Systematic risk
analysis is needed.
Risk analysis and even the definition of
the risk is complicated, and sometimes
is very expensive.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
29
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
30
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
31
-
Scientists: men or women from
all nations or ethnic
backgrounds.
-
work in various institutions and
organizations.
-
work alone, in small groups, or
as members of large research
teams
-
places of work include
classrooms, offices, laboratories,
and natural field settings from
space to the bottom of the sea.
-
communicate & colaborate with
each other or other segments of
society through special
communication tools.
- Strict ethical principles to keep the
science on top of the most valuable
human assets
- Within this context they:
- act responsibly,
- they never deviate from accuracy
(cheat) for the sake of no human
benefit,
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- represent collegiality in scientific
interactions
- are transparent in conflicts of interest
or potential conflicts of interest
- protect human subjects, animals and
environment
- adhere to mutual responsibilities
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
32
-
Scientists have an advisory role
they lead the society itself, or
leaders, or administrators of
the society
by:
helping to differentiate
between the "facts" and
"opinions", or "true" and
"false", or "possible/probable"
and "impossible".
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Caution:
Thus, their opinions are
treated/perceived as "truth"
by ordinary citizens.
Albert Einstein during a
radio talk
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
33
* Critical thinking :
"correct thinking" for
reaching or producing
relevant and reliable
knowledge, conclusions,
beliefs or values.
* A critical thinker can:

* can ask appropriate
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
34
questions,
* gather relevant information,
* efficiently and creatively
sort through this
information,
* reason logically from this
information, and
* come to reliable and
trustworthy conclusions.

* A critical thinker can:
* focus, identify and clarify
problems and issues, and,
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
* try alternative ways or
methods to solve them.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
35
- Thus:
A critical thinker can
achieve a productive,
successful, ethical,
happy, and, ultimately, a
satisfying and fulfilling
life or profession.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- Critical thinking is a
«must» scientists &
researchers
(no alternative)
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
36
- Critical Thinking welcomes
thinkin styles like:
- rational (logical) thinking,
- empirical thinking,
- skeptical thinking,
- pragmatic thinking,
- reflective thinking,
- creative thinking,
- comprehensible thinking,
- reasonable thinking,
- quantitative thinking,
- analytical thinking,
- statistical thinking.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
37
- Critical thinking rejects
thinking styles like:
- illogical thinking,
- intuitive thinking,
- hopeful/wishful thinking,
- Authoritarian thinking,
- dogmatic thinking,
- idealistic thinking,
- absolutist thinking,
- close-minded thinking,
- mystical thinking,
- emotional thinking,
- qualitative thinking etc.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
38
-
Critical thinking could be
learned
from:
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
39
-
Parents & teachers in
childhood
-
Sciense & math courses in
undergraduate education
-
continuous and conscious
testing and evaluating your
scientific practices and
keeping them within the
standards described here
- The most basic
characteristics of critical
thinking:
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
- Empirical Thinking
- Logical Thinking
- Skeptical thinking
40
- Empirical Thinking, or
Empiricism :
The use of empirical
(experimental) evidence
to make vital decisions and
reach sound conclusions
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
41
- Logical Thinking, or
Rationalism:
The Practice of Logical
Reasoning
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- Logic allows us to reason
correctly.
- Logic can be learned through
education
- The use of logic is not easy.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
42
- Logical logical fallacies:
false logic, falsehood and
misconceptions
- Incorrect assumption of
cause/effect relationship
- Inaccurate or distorted use of
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
43
the interpretation of
numerical statistical
information
- Faulty analogy, comparison
carried too far, or comparison
of things that have nothing in
common
- Stereotyping
- Ignoring the question,
digression, obfuscation to
avoid answering a question
- Faulty generalization
- Skeptical thinking, or
skepticism:
Possessing a skeptical
attitude
- repeatedly and rigorously
examining (questioning) our
beliefs and conclusions in
order not to be trapped by
self deception or deception
by others.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- If the logical consequences
of the beliefs match with
objective reality, your
beliefs are reliable
knowledge.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
44
- Learning and teaching:
key concepts in the life of a
scientist.
- scientists update themselves
by following literature
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- Scientists share their
knowledge with their
- students,
- colleagues,
- and society whenever
necessary.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
45
Tools:
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
46
-
scientific
seminars,
conferences, and workshops
-
Thausands
journals...
-
Peer reviewing
-
formal or informal discussions:
of
scientific
-
guard for unforseen mistakes
-
fueling effect for synergy ,
new ideas & critical thinking
Discussions:
Not:
fight or manifestation of
power,
but:
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
a win-win process.
Aim:
learning from each other
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
47

-
carefully
designed
procedures or road
maps are necessary
-
no invention is all of a
sudden in science
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
48
- Originality:
Diging the universe for
exploring "unknown" or
"new" or "unique",

Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- Originality in:
- tools,
- techniques,
- procedures developed,
- products
- the use of data
- etc.,
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
49
-
Scientists see the universe
through questions
(curiosity)
-
A positive attitude is a must
for productivity and
effectiveness.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
50
Creativity:
- inceases the productivity
and efficiency of problem
solving
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
useful when new ideas are
needed
- encourages looking from a
broader perspective
- can be improved.
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
51
Creativity Inhibitors:
(factors that limit the use of
creative ability)
- attitudes "I am not creative" or
"I cannot improve my creative
ability«
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- Fear of
- questioning,
- exploring new ideas,
- making mistakes,
- experiencing failure,
- taking risks
(lack of self-confidence)
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
52
Creativity Inhibitors:
Myths like:
- One's creative ability is set at
birth and it cannot be
developed!!!!
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
IT CAN BE LEARNED
- some people have creativity
and others do not !!!!!
ALL CREATIVITY STUDIES
SUGGEST OTHERWISE
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
53
Creativity Inhibitors:
Myths like:
- One's creative ability is set at
birth and it cannot be
developed!!!!
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
IT CAN BE LEARNED
- some people have creativity
and others do not !!!!!
ALL CREATIVITY STUDIES
SUGGEST OTHERWISE
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
54
Creativity Stimulators:
Improve any of your
- intellect,
- life experiences
- attitude toward creative
problem solving
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
- curiosity,
- willingness to persevere,
- knowledge of and ability to
use creativity stimulators,
i.e., creative problemsolving methods
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
55
Creativity Stimulators:
- Talking things over
- Keeping an open mind
- Brainstorming
- Negative brainstorming
- Viewing the problem from
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
imaginative perspectives
- Concentrating on anomalies
- Focusing on byproducts
- Interrogating (collecting
evidence through questioning)
imaginary experts
- Viewing the problem from the
perspective of another discipline
- Using 'the solution looking for
the problem': serendipity
- Using mind maps
56
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
57
-
Scientists appreciate beauty,
i.e., they are usually very
close to art and artists.
-
This explains why most of
the universities teach arts
and science topics in a
single
faculty
named
"Faculty of Arts and
Sciences"
This is not a shame. Science is
still developing and will
continue to develop as long as
human curiosity exists.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
58
-
True scientists also have
all human feelings as
much as ordinary citizens
do...
-
They can also fail in in
their decisions, even in
their academic life.
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
59
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
-
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
60
Surely You're Joking, Mr.
Feynman!: Adventures of
a Curious Character
Fundamental characteristics of scientists
-
Grad 501: Graduate Research Skills
61
That is what the rest of
this lecture all about.