Transcript Research Week 1

Research Methods for
Counselors
COUN 597
University of Saint Joseph Class # 1
Copyright © 2015 by R. Halstead. All rights reserved.
Counseling Research: The Big Picture
Where have we been and where are we going?
Where have we been?
During last semester we largely addressed the
elements of how counselors go about using
psychological measures to appraise individuals
and how to describe distributions of data.
Counseling Research: The Big Picture
Where are we going?
This semester we will address the methods
used to collect data, analyzing that data, and
use results of our analysis for clinical and
programmatic decision making.
We engage in this process to aid in the acquisition
and application of new knowledge.
Human Ways of Knowing
Personal Knowing/Self-Discovery
Knowledge Passed Down Through Tradition
Authoritative Experts
Human Ways of Knowing
Personal/Self-Discovery
- Constantly in the process of making observations,
constructing meaning, and drawing conclusions
- Purpose of this process is to establish stability and
predictability in our lives
- Important to distinguish between being able to
predict something will happen and truly
understanding why it happens
Human Ways of Knowing
Knowledge Passed Down Through Tradition
- Historical Knowledge - Many things have been learned
prior to our entering the world and that which is known can
be passed to us through family, school, and culture
- Positive - Saves time in that you do not have to spend time
rediscovering that which is already known
- Negative - Knowledge that comes from tradition may not be
questioned or not thought of as being important to examine and
engage in further inquiry.
Human Ways of Knowing
Authority
- We live in a technocracy where experts have power
- Experts have knowledge and we look to those experts for
the information and services we need
- Positive - Similar to those that pass knowledge via
tradition, experts have useful information from which we
can all benefit
- Negative - Knowledge that comes form experts may not
be questioned or garner further inquiry and sometimes
experts offer opinions about that which they do not
actually have a specified expertise.
Research - A Disciplined form of
Personal Discovery
George Kelly’s Constructs Theory - A Theory of
Personality
- All individuals are scientists.
- Through observation they collect data
- They analyze the data
- They draw conclusions
Then Kelly made the point at there are really
good scientists and some really bad scientists
Elements that Lead to Bad Science
Inaccurate Observations
- Misperceptions and Missed observations
- Overgeneralization
- Selective Observation
- Illogical Reasoning
- Accepting what sounds plausible as fact
Research Seeks Scientific Truth and does
NOT seek to PROVE
- Assumptions
- The world has order
- That which we observe has been caused
- Theory over philosophy
-Analyzing data systematically allows us to
approach truth
- Quantitative Analysis
- Qualitative Analysis
The Positivist (Modernist)View of
Research
Science is a way to learn a truth about some variable
of interest
Science is viewed as deterministic – about the variable
not about the researcher
Science is mechanistic and employs methods
Science only deals with what we can observe and
measure
The best way to learn the truth is to experiment
From this perspective science is objective
A Post-positivist (Post-Modernist)
View of Research
Objective truth does not exist because what one observes is
tied to subjective perceptions and a point of reference
The only way one can know is through the use of multiple
perspectives and triangulation in a naturalistic setting
Observation is theory laden and as such influenced by theory
and results in us only seeing what we look to see
Suggests that the method should not be reductionistic
The best way to learn the truth is to explore the whole
instead of just individual parts
From this perspective science is not objective
Critical Realism
This position holds that there’s a reality and that
we should strive toward as complete an
understanding as possible.
At the same time, we need to be critical of our
ability to ever get it perfectly right.
In science and research one is never able to
prove a particular truth – rather the best that
can be done is to learn more and more about a
particular phenomenon
Critical Thinking
Critical Thinking is Essential to Good Research
“Everyday Reasoning” can be flawed
Provincialism - Personal World View
Hasty Conclusions
Questionable Cause - Does X really cause Y?
Suppressed or Selective Evidence
Paradigms, Theory, and Research
A paradigm is a mental model or a belief system
use to conceptualize how something works in
the world.
A counseling theories embody a paradigm
because they are conceptualized set of ideas
believed to be true about how people change.
Paradigms, Theory, and
Research - Continued
It is important to test aspects of the theories we
work from and the assumptions from which
theories are built so we can be more confident
that we are providing the most effective
interventions to clients who we serve.
The Nature and Application of
Causation
One central idea is that a researcher often trys to
deal with is what causes that which one is
observing.
Cause > Effect
- A client has a problem (effect) - we look for the
cause.
- A counselor employs and intervention (cause)
we observe to see if there is change (effect).
The Nature of Causation –
Understanding the concept of variables
What is a Variable?
- A variable is any attribute that can be clearly
defined (Examples: Hope, Depression,
Anxiety, Anger, etc.) and measured.
- One other thing about variables is that they can take
on different values or vary (Examples: Mild
Depression vs. Intense Anxiety).
The Nature of Causation - Continued
Criteria for Causality
1. Variable A ( the cause) must precede Variable
B (the effect).
2. Var A must be empirically correlated with Var B
(gunpowder explodes Var A - you hear “Bang”
Var B).
3. The relationship between Var A and Var B can
not be explained by a third Var that causes Var A
and Var B (Ice Cream sales and Sun Screen
sales).
Research Design
Purposes of Research
Exploration - Develop a beginning familiarity
with the topic or issue.
Description - Accurately describe situations
and/or events.
Explanation/Evaluation - Arrive at a plausible
explanation of an observed phenomenon that can
be defended with objective data.
Research Design - Continued
Units of Analysis - Research Target
So who or what are you going to focus your
research observations and measurement?
- Individuals
- Groups
- Intervention Program
Understanding the unit of analysis will avoid over
generalizing findings.
Research Design - Continued
The Time Dimension
- Cross-Sectional Studies
- Longitudinal Studies
Research Design - Continued
How to Design a Research Project
- Conceptualizing questions of interest
- Choice of Research Method
- Operationalization
- Population and Sampling
- Observation
- Data Entry
- Analysis
- Application
So Why Do We Have to Take
Research?
“Ya know Rick, people go into counseling
because they are people people and not
numbers people - so I don’t know why I am
spending time working with numbers when I
want to work with people.”
Student
So Why Do We Have to Take
Research?
Answer: ACA Code of Ethics - A.1.a
You have to understand research because if you
are really concerned about people, you will
want to be able to provide them with the best
possible service.
This means you must engage in:
a) empirically based practice
b) consume of research (read and evaluate
journal articles
Evidence Based Practice
Makes use of research findings to understand
client problems and effective interventions
Specify problems, interventions, and outcomes
that are observable and measurable
Systematically collect data to monitor
interventions and determine their effectiveness
Draw conclusions from data analysis
Scientific Method
Deductive - From the general to the specific
1. Begin with a general theory and derive one or
more hypotheses (or research questions)
2. Identify specific-observable variables and clearly
define them
3. Make observations (meaning Collect Data)
4. Analyze Data
5. Draw conclusions
Scientific Method - Continued
Inductive - From specific instances to general
principles - from facts to theories
1. Begin by collecting data on some topic of interest
2. Analysis the research data collected
3. Look for connections or themes that emerge from
the data
4. Draw generalized conclusions or theories from
findings
Different Questions
Different Approaches
A deductive approach seeks to answer questions
related to testing where general concepts hold in
specific situations.
- For this reason we use quantitative data analysis
Numerically testing hypotheses
A inductive approach seeks to understand how specific
elements might be useful in forming large principles.
- For this reason we use qualitative data analysis Building theory from observations
Different Situations
Different Designs
 Client change - N of One Case Study
 Program effectiveness – Out Come Research
 How Variable Relate – Correlation Study
 Impact of Intervention – Action Research
Quantitative Data Analysis Means
Understanding and Using Statistics
Mean
Median
Mode
Central Tendency
Standard Deviation
Standard Error
ANOVA
Ethics in Research
We must always be concerned about following
the ethical guidelines.
Ensure safety of participants
Following proper procedures helps to enhance the
quality of the research.
Section E. and Section G. of the ACA Code of
Ethics
ASCA Code of Ethics – Does not specifically
address issues of research – see A.9.g