Transcript Slide 1

Learning theories can:
 Inform our tutoring practice by
providing us with insights into how
students learn and develop
 Provide a basis to determine relevant
and effective approaches to use with
students
Students experience many forms of development throughout
their college experiences.
The following chart depicts a few domains of this
development…
Discovering
one’s personal
identity
Psychosocial
Development
Finding a
career
direction
Adapting to
adult roles in
society
College
Student
Development
Building
mature
relationships
Moral
Reasoning
Cognitive
Development
Intellectual
Development
Tutoring
can play a role in a student’s development along
Source:
any of F.,
these
domains.
However,
tutoring most
directly
Hamrick,
Evans,
N., & Schuh,
J. (2002). Foundations
of Student
Affairs Practice: How Philosophy,
Theory,
and Research
Outcomes.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
influences
a Strengthen
student’sEducational
intellectual
development.
Perry’s
Cognitive
Discovering
one’s Development
personal
Theory
identity
Psychosocial
Development
Finding a
career
direction
Adapting to
adult roles in
society
College
Student
Development
Building
King and
mature
Kitchener’s
relationships
Reflective
Judgment
Bloom’s
Moral
Taxonomy
Reasoning
Cognitive
Development
Intellectual
Development
Source:
Hamrick, F., Evans, N., & Schuh, J. (2002). Foundations of Student Affairs Practice: How Philosophy,
Theory, and Research Strengthen Educational Outcomes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Perry’s
Cognitive
Development
Theory
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Intellectual
Development
King and
Kitchener’s
Reflective
Judgment
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Commitment in
Relativism
Relativism
Key Highlights:
• Developed by William Perry in 1970
• Focuses on how students find meaning
and truth amid a diversity of
perspectives
• Theory includes nine positions that can
be grouped into four levels (Perry
refrains from using the term “stage”)
Multiplicity
Dualism
Sources:
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Belief in dichotomies: Something is either
“true” or “false,” “right” or “wrong,” etc.
• Faith in information provided by authority
figures such as teachers and professors
• Students memorize information provided by
authority figures and presume that it is factual
and “true”
Sources:
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Dualism
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Example:
• Belief
in dichotomies: Something is either
“true”
or “false,”
“right”
“wrong,”
etc.
Q: What
was the
cause or
of the
Civil War?
• Faith in information provided by authority
A: According to my professor, the Civil
figures such as teachers and professors
War was fought over slavery.
• Students memorize information provided by
Q: What
if I suggested
that the
War
authority
figures
and presume
thatCivil
it is factual
actually caused by economic
andwas
“true”
factors?
A: That is not correct. My professor
explained that the Civil War was fought
Sources:
Love, P.over
G., & the
Guthrie,
V. L.of
(1999).
Understanding and applying cognitive
issue
slavery.
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Dualism
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Students recognize that multiple perspectives
have validity
• Belief that everyone has the right to hold an
opinion
• Difficulty with evaluating competing claims
Multiplicity
Dualism
Sources:
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Example:
• Students
recognize that multiple perspectives
have
Q: validity
What was the cause of the Civil War?
• Belief
that everyone
hasprofessor,
the right the
to hold
A: According
to my
Civilan
opinion
War was fought over slavery.
Q: Whatwith
if I evaluating
suggested that
the Civil
War
• Difficulty
competing
claims
was actually caused by economic
factors?
Multiplicity
A: That’s possible. Perhaps it was. It’s
hard to know for certain because we
can’t actually ask the people who fought
Sources:
Love, P.the
G., &
Guthrie,
V. L.now.
(1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
Civil
War
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Dualism
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
• Students more able to evaluate competing ideas
based on evidence and analysis
• Students are willing to question the assertions
of authority figures
Relativism
Multiplicity
Dualism
• Students may experience some difficulty when
making choices among seemingly-equal
alternatives
Sources:
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Example:
• Students
more able to evaluate competing ideas
based
on evidence
analysis
Q: What
was theand
cause
of the Civil War?
• Students are willing to question the assertions
A: According to my professor, the Civil
of authority figures
War was fought over slavery.
Relativism
Multiplicity
• Students
may
somethe
difficulty
when
Q: What
if I experience
suggested that
Civil War
making
choicescaused
amongby
seemingly-equal
was actually
economic
alternatives
factors?
A: Perhaps it was. What is the basis for
your suggestion that the economic
Sources:
factors
mayV.have
caused
the Civil
War?cognitive
Love, P.
G., & Guthrie,
L. (1999).
Understanding
and applying
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Dualism
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Commitment in
Relativism
• Students apply relativistic thinking throughout
their daily lives
• Students can view ideas from a detached and
objective standpoint
Relativism
Multiplicity
Dualism
Sources:
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
development theory. New Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
William Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Commitment in
Relativism
Example:
• Students
apply relativistic thinking throughout
their
Q:daily
Whatlives
was the cause of the Civil War?
A: According
my professor,
the Civil
• Students
can viewtoideas
from a detached
and
War was
fought over slavery.
objective
standpoint
Relativism
Q: What if I suggested that the Civil War
was actually caused by economic
factors?
Multiplicity
A: That is an interesting idea. I am going
to research this topic further, evaluate all
of the perspectives regarding possible
Sources:
causes of the Civil War, and then let you
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive
know
what
think..for Student Services, 88. Retrieved
development
theory.
NewIDirections
from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Dualism
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry
(1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
Perry’s
Cognitive
Development
Theory
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Intellectual
Development
King and
Kitchener’s
Reflective
Judgment
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
Key Highlights:
Reflective Reasoning
Quasi-Reflective
Reasoning
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
• Developed by Patricia King and Karen
Kitchener in the 1970s
• Influenced by William Perry’s
Cognitive Development Theory
• Focus on how students evaluate ideas
and information in the context of illstructured problems
Source:
King, P. M. Reflective judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
Ill-structured problems involve questions for which
there is no simple answer and for which arguments can
be made from many different perspectives.
Examples:
• How should the government balance the need to make
investments in public programs while also managing
the public debt?
• How can colleges and universities best maintain costly
facilities, attract high-achieving students, ensure
access for low-income students, offer sufficient
financial aid, and provide adequate services while
keeping tuition low?
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
• Knowledge is assumed to be absolutely certain
• Belief that “There is only one right answer” to
every question
• Faith in information from authority figures or
first hand observation without further reflection
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
Source:
King, P. M. Reflective judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
Employment Data Source:
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Retrieved January 4, 2010 from
http://www.bls.gov/
Example:
Q: Was unemployment worse in 2009
than it was in 1982?
A: No. According to the U.S.
Government, the unemployment
rate was higher in 1982 (10.8%)
than it was in 2009 (10.2%).
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
Source:
King, P. M. Reflective judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
• Realization that knowledge contains some
uncertainty
• Recognition that an “answer” may be
impacted by the method of inquiry used to
find it
Quasi-Reflective
Reasoning
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
Source:
King, P. M. Reflective judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
Employment Data Source:
Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Retrieved January 4, 2010 from
http://www.bls.gov/
Quasi-Reflective
Reasoning
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
Example:
Q: Was unemployment worse in 2009
than it was in 1982?
A: Although unemployment rate was
higher in 1982, the increase in
unemployment was greater during the
2009 recession, as was the average
number of weeks unemployed.
Furthermore, the official unemployment
rate does not include “discouraged
workers” or “underemployed” workers.
The answer depends on how you define
“worse” and which measures you use.
Source:
King, Patricia M. Reflective Judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
Reflective Reasoning
Quasi-Reflective
Reasoning
• Understanding that knowledge is uncertain but
reasonable conclusions can be drawn with
relative certainty
• Realization answer “correctness” depends
on appropriateness of methods used to
find it given the situation
• Ongoing willingness to reevaluate
conclusions as new information becomes
available
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
Source:
King, Patricia M. Reflective Judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
King and Kitchener’s Reflective Judgment Model
Reflective Reasoning
Quasi-Reflective
Reasoning
Pre-Reflective
Reasoning
• Understanding
that knowledge is uncertain but
Example:
reasonable conclusions can be drawn with
Q: Was unemployment worse in 2009
relative certainty
than it was in 1982?
• Realization
answer
depends
A: Although
the “correctness”
peak of the official
on appropriateness
of rate
methods
used toin
unemployment
was higher
find it 1982,
given itthe
situation
can
be concluded with
reasonable certainty that the total
unemployment
was
• Ongoing
willingness tosituation
reevaluate
actually
worse
in 2009 on becomes
the basis
conclusions
as new
information
of additional data, including the net
available
increase in the unemployment rate
and the average duration of
unemployment for workers.
Source:
King, P. M. Reflective judgment. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
Perry’s
Cognitive
Development
Theory
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Intellectual
Development
King and
Kitchener’s
Reflective
Judgment
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
Key Highlights:
• Originally developed by Benjamin
• Unlike the stages of the previous
Bloom in 1956, modified by his Creating two models that occur over years
student Lorin Anderson
of development, these stages can
Evaluating
during the 1990s.
take place during each
learning experience
• Focus is on meaningful
Analyzing
understanding of
concepts and higher
Applying
order thinking
Understanding
Remembering
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
Creating information
A student can recall memorized
Evaluating
Analyzing
“The Pythagorean Theorem states:
Applying
‘a2 + b2 = c2’ ”
Understanding
c
b
Remembering
a
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
Creatingand ideas
A student can explain concepts
Evaluating
“The PythagoreanAnalyzing
Theorem tells us that
the square of the length of the hypotenuse is
Applying
equal to the sum of the
squares of the other
sides of a right triangle.”
Understanding
c=5
b=4
Remembering
a=3
32 + 42 = 52
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
9 + 16 = 25
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
Creating
A student can demonstrate
use of the information
Evaluating
Analyzing
“We can determine the
length of wire needed
to anchor a utility pole if we know the height
of the pole and the distance
from the base of
Applying
the pole where we will attach the wire:”
Understanding102 + 302 = c2?
b = 30’ 100
c? Remembering
+ 900 = 1,000
c =√1,000 = 31.6’
a = 10’
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
A student can examine Creating
possibilities
Not 31.6’!
Evaluating
Analyzing
“This is true only if we assume that the pole is
perpendicular to the ground, the pole and
Applying
wire are both straight, and the ground is
level.”
Understanding
b = 30’
a = 10’
b = 30’
31.6’Remembering
a = 10’
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
A student can argue to Creating
justify a decision
Evaluating
Analyzing
Applying
Understanding
We can use the Pythagorean Theorem when
Remembering
the pole is straight, etc., but we can not use it
without modification when the pole is not
straight.
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Bloom’s Taxonomy (as revised by Anderson)
Creating
A student can formulate
a new idea using his/her knowledge
Evaluating
“Perhaps we can still Analyzing
use the Pythagorean
Theorem to estimate
Applying
the length of wire
needed by breaking
the shape into partsUnderstanding
with
multiple right triangles.”
Remembering
Source:
Overbaugh, Richard C. and Schultz, Lynn. Bloom’s Taxonomy. Retrieved December 19, 2009 from
http://www.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Using Bloom’s Taxonomy in Tutoring
Ask your students thought-provoking
questions!
What questions could you ask a student
to help him or her remember
information?
Example questions:
 “Define…”
 “What does this term mean?”
 “What…?” “Where…?” “Who…?”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
What are some questions you can ask a
student to help him or her understand
what he or she has learned?
Example question:
 “Paraphrase this concept in your own
words…”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
What are some questions you can ask a
student to apply his or her knowledge?
Example questions:
 “Predict what would happen if…”
 “Prepare a … to apply this idea”
 “Describe a real-world example of this.”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
What are some questions you can ask a
student to help him or her analyze
concepts?
 Example questions:
 “What assumptions did the author make
when writing this?”
 “What ideas support this conclusion?”
 “What is the relationship between this
and…?”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
What are some questions you can ask a
student to help him or her evaluate
ideas?
Example questions:
 “What are the strengths and fallacies of
this idea?”
 “Why or why not is this information
valid, logical, and appropriate?”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
What are some questions you can ask a
student to help him or her create
something new based on what they have
learned?
Example questions:
 “Using what you have learned,
create…”
 “Propose an alternative idea or solution
to this problem.”
Source:
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
Summary of Theories
Theory
Focus
Use in Tutoring
Perry’s Theory
of Cognitive
Development
How students find
meaning and truth amid
diverse perspectives
Helping students evaluate
competing ideas
King and
Kitchener’s
Reflective
Judgment
Model
How students draw wellreasoned conclusions
when approaching illstructured problems
Helping students draw
conclusions to solve illstructured problems when
there is uncertainty
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
Levels of conceptual
understanding and higher
order thinking
Helping students gain a
thorough understanding of
concepts beyond simple
memorization
Participative Activity:
Instructions:
Please refer to your handout.
Step 1: Find a partner and read each scenario.
Step 2: With your partner, discuss the following questions:
1. What tutoring issues were presented in the case?
2. How could a tutor respond to the issues at hand?
3. If the tutor were to respond that way, what might
happen? How might the student react?
Step 3: One pair of partners will be asked to role-play each scenario
for the entire group. The partners role-playing the scenario should
also demonstrate the tutoring approach they came up with.
Step 4: As a group, discuss the questions above and critique the
approach to the situation depicted by the skit. Did you and your
partner identify the same tutoring issues or come up with the same
solutions?
Concluding Points to Remember:
Understanding learning and development theories helps
us tutor students more thoughtfully
Help students consider and evaluate multiple perspectives
(Perry’s Theory of Cognitive Development)
Encourage students to assess the reasoning behind ideas,
theories, and conclusions (King and Kitchener’s
Reflective Reasoning Model)
Ask students to understand, apply, analyze, and evaluate
concepts as well as create new ideas of their own using
what they have learned (Bloom’s Taxonomy)
References
Hamrick, F., Evans, N., and Schuh, J. (2002). Foundations of student affairs practice: How philosophy,
theory, and research strengthen educational outcomes. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Indiana University-Perdue University Indianapolis Center for Teaching and Learning. (2002). Bloom’s
taxonomy revised: Key words, model questions, & instructional strategies. Retrieved from
http://wed.siu.edu/faculty/JCalvin/bloomstax.pdf
King, P. M. (2013). Reflective judgment. Retrieved from http://www.umich.edu/~refjudg/index.html
Love, P. G., & Guthrie, V. L. (1999). Understanding and applying cognitive development theory. New
Directions for Student Services, 88. Retrieved from
http://www.lib.jmu.edu/documents/academicrigor/Pedagogy/DOC002.PDF
Nevins, K. (2003). Intellectual and ethical development William Perry (1970). Retrieved from
http://people.bethel.edu/~kisrob/hon301k/sessions03/9-22-03/Perry.html
Overbaugh, R. C. & Schultz, L.. Bloom’s taxonomy. Retrieved from
http://ww2.odu.edu/educ/roverbau/Bloom/blooms_taxonomy.htm
Wright State University Boonshoft School of Medicine. (2010). Higher order thinking skills question
templates. Retrieved from
http://www.med.wright.edu/aa/facdev/_Files/PDFfiles/QuestionTemplates.pdf