Transcript Chapter 4

Pride in Family and City
Rome from Its Origins through the
Republic, 753-44 B.C.E.
Pride in Family and City
The Big Picture
Alexander the Great
Hellenistic Kingdoms
(r. 337-323 B.C.E.)
(337 B.C.E.-31 B.C.E.)
Reforms of the Gracchi
First Triumvirate:
Roman Monarchy Struggle of the Orders
(133-123 B.C.E.)
Pompey, Caesar
(753-509 B.C.E.) (509 to 287 B.C.E.)
& Crassus
(60-49 B.C.E.)
Italy under Roman
Punic Wars
Civil Wars
Control (263 B.C.E.) (264-146 B.C.E.) (123-46 B.C.E.)
500 B.C.E.
300 B.C.E.
100 B.C.E.
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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E
A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Romulus & Remus
A royal female descendant of Aeneas, a hero of the Trojan War
who travels to Italy, is impregnated by the god of war, Mars,
and gives birth to twins, Romulus & Remus. The king, the
boys’ uncle, saw them as threat to his rule and throws them
into the Tiber River. A shepherd found the two being suckled
by a she-wolf and raised them as his own. When they had
grown to adulthood, Romulus killed his brother in a quarrel
and then became the founding king of a new city. The
traditional founding date was 753 B.C.E.
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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E
A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Romulus & Remus
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The Rise of Rome, 753-265 B.C.E
A Great City is Founded: The Myth of Cincinnatus
In the spring of 458 B.C.E., nearby tribe threatened Rome and
the Senate offered the position of dictator, a position of
supreme power given to one individual during emergencies, to
a humble farmer/soldier named Cincinnatus. He led the Roman
army against the enemy and soundly defeated them, and in
gratitude, the citizens asked him to continue to be Rome’s
absolute ruler. Instead, Cincinnatus preferred to step down and
return to his plow and humble farm. What does this story tell
us about the ideals of the early Roman republic?
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The Rise of Rome
The Geography & People of Rome
– Commanding Position: Located on hills overlooking a fertile
plain with the Tiber River at its center. The Tiber offered
connection to the Mediterranean but also the interior regions.
– Ideal for Agriculture and Trade: The Apennine Mountains in
the center of the peninsula supplied ample rain on the western
plains, which were ideal for large-scale agriculture. The flat
coastal regions and good harbors encouraged trade.
– A Farming People: The original Romans were Indo-Europeans
from the Black Sea region who were known as sturdy
farmer/soldiers.
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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans
– Etruscan Mysteries: The Etruscans, who dominated the region before
the rise of the Romans, remain somewhat mysterious to modern
scholars. They did not speak an Indo-European language and remains
mostly untranslated. DNA and other research has shown that they came
from modern-day Turkey, having even brought their own cattle. They
became a very wealthy culture through trade.
– Etruscan Artwork: The art of the Etruscans gives us the most clues
about their society since their writing remains untranslatable. The
statuary did show a prosperous society with surprising gender equity.
– Etruscan Influences on Romans: The Romans later adopted the
Etruscan kingship, many of their engineering techniques like sewer
building, architectural innovations like arches and vaults, religious
practices like animal divination, the woolen garment known as the to
toga, and the symbol of government power know as the fasces. Most
importantly, the Romans adopted the Etruscan alphabet (now our own!)
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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans
An Etruscan
sarcophagus lid
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The Rise of Rome - Etruscans
Fasces – a symbol of
government power that
originated with the
Etruscans and was
adopted by the Romans
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The Rise of Rome
The Monarchy, ca. 753-509 B.C.E.
– Myth and History: Origins of the Roman monarchy are a mixture
of the two. Romulus by tradition ruled from ca. 753-715 B.C.E.
and was followed by four more kings. Etruscan kings appear to
have ruled from 616 to about 509 B.C.E.
– Overthrow of Etruscans: Roman aristocrats came to resent the
Etruscan kings. According to tradition, the violation of a respected
Roman matron named Lucretia by Sextus, the son of the Etruscan
king, Tarquin the Proud, set off the rebellion. She committed
suicide, rallying the Romans to rebel under the leadership of her
husband, Collatinus, and a Etrsucan nobleman named Brutus. In
reality, not all Romans supported the revolts. The lower classes
had looked to the kings to check the power of the noble families,
known as the patricians.
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The Rise of Rome
Governing an Emerging Republic, 509-287 B.C.E.
– A Republic Founded: A government called a republic was formed to replace
the monarchy. The word comes from the Latin “res publica,” meaning “public
matter” or “public thing.” It is often rendered as “commonwealth” in English.
– The Republic’s Working Parts
Consuls: two male citizens who wielded executive power of the state and who
were annually elected to the position.
Senate: A body of elder statesmen from noble families who advised the consuls.
Assemblies: Outdoor gatherings of all male citizens in which groups voted on
issues presented by leading statesmen.
Patricians: Old noble families recognized as socially and legally superior to
everyone else; they made up about 6 percent of the population.
Plebeians: The working people of the republic who were the majority and had
representation through the assemblies, but in reality, not much influence.
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The Roman Republic
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The Rise of Rome
Governing an Emerging Republic,
509-287 B.C.E.
– Struggle of the Orders: The plebian majority had little power since
the patricians dominated the Senate and wealthy men dominated the
Assembly of Centuries. By the fifth century, relations between plebs
and patricians had deteriorated. The poor wanted to stop abuses against
them and wealthy plebs wanted more of a government voice. These
demands lead to a series of reforms imposed on the aristocracy from
roughly 509-287 B.C.E. that avoided civil war. Historians have called
the reforms the “Struggle of the Orders.”
– Plebeian Withdrawal: The Plebeians withdrew from the politics of the
official city order creating their own temples and even their own
elected officials to represent their interests, called tribunes. Plebes also
refused military service unless their demands were met.
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The Rise of Rome
Governing an Emerging Republic, 509-287 B.C.E.
– The Twelve Tables: The plebes won their fight for a written law
code between 451-449 B.C.E. Laws thus could be consistently
enforced, creating a strong tradition of Roman law and order.
– Tribal Assembly: A new assembly was put in place that
represented the plebeians and passed laws that applied to
plebeians and patricians alike, rich or poor. This reform
produced a new social order:
Patricians – old noble families as before
Equestrians (or knights) – wealthy plebeians who could afford
to be members of the cavalry
Plebeians – working and poor people who were the vast
majority in Roman society
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The Rise of Rome
Informal Governance: Patrons and Clients
– Patrons: Powerful figures known as “patrons” surrounded themselves
with less powerful “clients” with whom they created important and
highly influential ties. Patrons provided “kindnesses”—anything from
food to political favors—in exchange for loyalty, usually in the form of
financial or political support.
– Clients: They provided their patrons with visible proof of their power
and authority.
– The Forum: This large public gathering space surrounding by temples
and public buildings, including the Senate chamber, was where
influential men could address the public. Men with hundreds of clients
would be cheered bolstered by his entourage. Fights might also break
out between competing patron/client groups.
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Rome During the Republic
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The Rise of Rome
Dominating the Italian Peninsula
– Italian Wars: As the Republic became stronger, wars began to break
out between it and its neighbors. Rome claimed its expansion was for
self-defense, but it also felt the need to expand to establish colonies
and provide more land for its plebians.
– Latin League: By the fifth century, the republic led a defensive
league with other Latin tribes known as the Latin League. By 340
B.C.E., the other members became resentful of Roman leadership
and revolted. Rome defeated these rivals and became the dominant
power on the Italian peninsula. Instead of treating the revolting tribes
as conquered peoples, it offered them citizenship.
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Italy, 265 B.C.E.
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Family Life and City Life
A Pious, Practical People
– Importance of Religion: Romans believed that their
success and prosperity relied on proper religious
observance, which included offerings to the gods. Jupiter,
Juno, and Minerva were especially important to Rome.
– Household Gods: Lesser gods known as lares and penates
protected individual neighborhoods and households.
– Public Presence of Religion: The Temple of Vesta—virgin
goddess of the hearth, home, and family—and the temple
of the supreme god Jupiter, were next to the Forum.
– Seriousness: Romans valued moral seriousness and sense
of duty, and puzzled at the Greek sense of individualism.
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Family Life and City Life
– Lares Familiares in a Pompeii
householdLares
Lares Familiares in a Pompeii
Household, ca. 79 C.E.
Model of the Temple of Vesta in
Rome, ca. 180 C.E.
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Family Life and City Life
Religion and the State
– Colleges of Priests: The Romans had an elaborate religious apparatus
attached to the state, including four colleges of priests and priestess: the
pontificate, the augurate, the keepers of the Sibylline prophecies, and
the epulones.
– Prestige: The priests and priestesses were from patrician families. The
pontificate was the most important college, and its leader, the pontifex
maximus, was the chief state religious officer. The colleges of the
augurate and Syblline priests were next in prestige, with the epulones,
who were in charge of preparing the games and feasts of Jupiter, at the
bottom. The top two colleges advised the Senate on religious matters
and had a great deal of influence in Roman politics and society.
– Vestal Virgins: These highly honored priestesses kept an eternal flame
burning in tribute to Vesta, the goddess of hearth and home, and were
members of the pontifical college.
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Family Life and City Life
Greek Gods
Roman Equivalent
Zeus
Hera
Apollo
Ares
Poseidon
Aphrodite
Athena
Hermes
Demeter
Artemis
Jupiter
Juno
Apollo
Mars
Neptune
Venus
Minerva
Mercury
Ceres
Diana
Hephaestus
Vulcan
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Family Life and City Life
Loyalty to the Family
– Loyalty: Loyalty was a trait that was highly valued by the
Romans, as seen in the patron/client relationship, but it first
and foremost started with family.
– Patriarchy: At least in theory, the father had complete
control over all members of the household: his wife,
children, slaves, and even ex-slaves.
– Household Loyalty: Family members shared the
responsibility of worshipping household spirits and
ancestors, who they believed were the source of that
household’s prosperity.
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Family Life and City Life
Loyalty to the Family: Marriage Patterns
– Arranged: Marriages in early Rome were arranged to
create and maintain political alliances between families.
– Control of a Marriage: A woman could be given over to
her new husband’s family completely, or remain under her
father’s “hand” and remain more financially and politically
tied to her family of origin.
– Women’s Authority: Evidence shows that mothers had
nearly the same amount of authority over children as
fathers, and many women exerted considerable political
influence through their sons.
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Family Life and City Life
The Challenges of Childhood
– Surviving Infancy: Midwives would often kill imperfect
children by cutting the umbilical too closely, and if a father
was displeased when a newborn was laid at his feet, the
child would be “exposed” or sold into slavery. Infant
mortality was exceedingly high even for healthy children.
– Education: Formal education for patrician children started
at 6 or 7 with tutors. At 12, boys started a broad curriculum
of literature, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy, and
logic. If a boy had talent, he learned advanced rhetoric at
16 to prepare him for speaking publicly in a career of
public service.
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Family Life and City Life
Life in the City
– Population: By the late Republic (ca. 50 B.C.E.), Rome had
reached the astounding figure of 1,000,000—a huge size for a
city in the ancient world (and still big today).
– Topography of Wealth: The wealthy lived on villas on the hills,
away from the bustle of the city center, while the poor lived in
the overcrowded lowlands.
– Smells of the City: Rome had sewers, but the disposal of waste
and garbage was not good by modern standards. Wealthy men
wore a bouquet of flowers to protect their noses from the stench.
– The Forum: It served not only as the political center, but the
economic and social one as well. Two rows of shops lined the
square. In afternoon when works was done, men gathered to
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gossip and talk politics.
Family Life and City Life
An artist’s
rendering
of the
Roman
Forum in
the late
Republic.
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Expansion and Transformation,
265 – 133 B.C.E.
The Romans’ Victorious Army
– Soldier/Citizens: When the Republic’s leaders saw a threat, they
raised a red flag in the Forum. Free householders—tax-paying
men between the ages of 17 and 46—had to report to Rome and
potentially be selected for military service.
– Organization: In the early Republic, the army was organized
into legions of 4,000 men, with 40 companies of 100 each.
– Discipline: All soldiers took an oath binding them until death or
the end of the war. The practice of “decimation”—every tenth
soldier was killed by commanders if orders were disobeyed or if
a unit failed—made disobedience rare. Soldiers only ate wheat
bread and water, fearing that eating meat would soften them.
– Italian Conquest: The Roman fighting machine had unified
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nearly all of the Italian peninsula by 265 B.C.E.
Expansion and Transformation,
265 – 133 B.C.E.
Wars of the Mediterranean: Carthage
– History: Founded around the same time as the city of Rome (ca.
800 B.C.E.) by Phoenician colonists, this city-state became the
other great power of the Western Mediterranean. The city had a
population of 400,000 at its height.
– Master Traders: Through trade and conquest, the Carthaginians
became prosperous and gained control of much of the coast of the
Western Mediterranean, setting themselves up for conflict with
expanding Roman power. They were excellent sailors and traders
like their Phoenician ancestors. They obtained much gold from the
North Africans who were their principal trading partners.
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Expansion and Transformation,
265 – 133 B.C.E.
Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War
– First Punic War (264 – 241 B.C.E.): The war was mostly
about the control of Sicily, specifically the city of Messana,
which sat on the strait that divided Italy and Sicily. In 264,
both sides sent troops to the disputed island.
– New Roman Navy: The Romans were not traditionally an
ocean-going people, but they developed new tactics that
allowed them to use their effective foot-soldiers at sea.
Earlier strategy involved ramming, but the Romans used a
spiked catwalk that they lowered on to the enemy vessel,
allowing the soldiers to board the enemy ship and engage in
hand-to-hand combat, at which they excelled.
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Expansion and Transformation,
265 – 133 B.C.E.
Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War
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Expansion and Transformation,
265 – 133 B.C.E.
Wars of the Mediterranean: First Punic War
– “Punic”: The Romans used the word “Punic” to describe the
Carthaginians, since this was the Latin word for
“Phoenician,” taking note of their Phoenician origins.
– Roman Victory: In 241, the Romans won a decisive sea
victory and were able to declare victory. The Republic seized
control of Sicily and imposed a heavy war indemnity on
Carthage.
– Future Conflict: The larger question of who would control
the western Mediterranean remained unanswered, making
future conflict between the two powers almost inevitable.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)
– Cause of the War: The fight began over the city of Saguntum in
what is now Spain, which lay in the Carthaginian sphere of
influence, but was traditionally an ally of Rome.
– Hannibal Barca: A brilliant Carthaginian general, Hannibal
Barca, started the war by attacking Sarguntum. Hannibal’s fight
was made more difficult than before because Rome controlled the
seas.
– Crossing the Alps: Hannibal “brought the war to Italy” by
crossing the Alps with 30,000 or 40,000 troops, 6,000 horses, and
35 war elephants.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)
– Hannibal’s Expectations: Hannibal thought that many of the
Italian tribes would rise up against the Romans, and some did, but
for the most part the alliance system the Romans built up stayed in
place.
– Battle of Cannae (216 B.C.E.): Hannibal was able to give the
Romans their worst defeated ever at the Battle of Cannae, in which
approximately 30,000 Romans were killed by a brilliant encircling
movement. Hannibal’s forces roamed up and down the Italian
peninsula for virtually seventeen years while the Romans adopted
a defensive position.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Second Punic War (218 – 201 B.C.E.)
– Publius Cornelius Scipio (236 – 183 B.C.E.): Rome finally
produced a general brilliant enough to match Hannibal, Scipio. He
was able to take Carthage’s Spanish possessions, and then sailed to
North Africa where he brought the war directly to Carthage,
leaving Rome almost unprotected.
– Carthage’s Defeat: Scipio defeated Hannibal at the Battle of
Zama in 202, forcing the Carthaginians to sign a treaty that
relinquished claims on Spain and made them promise to ask Rome
for permission to wage war. Rome’s navy was able to keep
Carthage’s ally, Philip V of Macedonia, from sending troops to aid
Carthage. He was given the name “Africanus” to celebrate his
victory.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Third Punic War (149 – 146 B.C.E)
– Cause of the Third War: Rome’s ally in North Africa, Numidia,
encroached on Carthaginian territory, and Carthage applied to
Rome for permission to wage war. Rome denied it.
– Cato the Elder (234 – 149 B.C.E.): The elder statesman who was
virulently anti-Carthaginian made an impassioned speech calling
for war, ending it by saying “Carthage must be destroyed.” Cato
soon died, but got his wish.
– Roman Victory: Roman forces under another Scipio, Scipio
Aemilianus, crushed Carthage and leveled the city. The city would
lay in ruins for a hundred years until the Romans later re-colonized
the site.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Wars with Macedonia and Greece
– Wars with Macedonia: Rome fought three wars against
Macedonia from ca. 215 to 168 B.C.E. The first was inconclusive;
in the second Rome aided Greek poleis against Macedonia and
won, and in the third Macedonia tried to reassert its authority over
Greece and was crushed decisively by the Romans.
– Greece: The “freed” Greeks did not act as obedient Roman clients,
so a Roman commander set an example by burning Corinth and
enslaving its population, bringing rich plunder back to Rome.
– Asia: By 137 B.C.E., the Romans had established a province in
Asia Minor, with the last king of Pergamum deeding his lands to
Rome.
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Expansion of the Roman Republic, 264-44 B.C.E.
©2011, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Expansion and Transformation
Wars of the Mediterranean: Administering the Provinces
– “Client States”: Rome did not always annex territory directly, but
left the administration to “client states,” leaving local leaders in
place but in the pocket of Rome.
– Governors: Governors were appointed to oversee a province and
make sure that tax collectors didn’t abuse their privileges and make
sure that justice was administered properly for Roman citizens.
– Wealth and Corruption: The administration of the provinces
made officials and others wealthy through the sale of land and
slaves, but also through opportunities for corruption.
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Expansion and Transformation
An Influx of Slaves
– Wars and Slaves: New conquests brought not only
expansion of lands, but also of captured people in bondage.
The Second Punic War alone had brought more than
200,000 into Italy as slaves. This influx permanently
changed the nature of Roman society. Rich households
could have hundreds of slaves rather than just two or three.
– Slave Occupations: The most undesirable occupations—
mining, garbage collection, acting, and prostitution—were
done by slaves. But some Greek slaves served as tutors and
in some high-ranking jobs, even including physician.
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Expansion and Transformation
An Influx of Slaves
– Slave Revolts: With more and more slaves coming in,
Romans began to worry more about the possibility of slave
revolt. Three great slave revolts disrupted Italy and Sicily
between 135 and 71 B.C.E., the most famous being led by
the gladiator and slave Spartacus, who gathered an army of
roughly 70,000 before his uprising was crushed.
– Terence (Publius Terentius Afer, ca. 190 – 159 B.C.E.):
One of Rome’s most successful playwrights, an author of
several popular comedies, began his life as a slave in North
Africa. His master, a senator, realized his talent and freed
him, allowing him to pursue his career.
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Expansion and Transformation
• Economic Disparity and Social Unrest
– Increasing Disparity in Wealth: Roman conservatives
decried the loss of the old Roman agricultural way of life,
based on farmer/soldiers. The upper classes had reaped
much of the wealth of the conquered provinces, but the
poor found their opportunities for betterment decrease.
– Soldiers: Soldiers were at war as long as seven years
during the Punic Wars, leading many to lose their small
farms. Rich men would buy up the land, creating big
plantations called latifundia, which were worked by slaves.
– Urban Poor: The landless poor migrated to the cities,
where they became property-less day laborers. Elites
worried they might be a revolutionary class.
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The Hellenizing of the Republic
Resisting Change
– Cato the Elder: In the office of censor, he tried to stem the
increasing display of wealth and love of things Greek, trying to
impose taxes on luxury items and penalizing those who
neglected their farms, but it was a losing battle.
Roman Engineering: Fusing Utility and Beauty
– Engineering: Greek aesthetics and scientific learning mixed
with Roman engineering to create buildings of stunning beauty
and practicality. Roman engineering also supported military
forces by creating pontoon bridges and war engines.
– Aqueducts: The Roman skill at building arches lent itself to
bringing running water to cities via aqueducts, with the first
being built around 312 B.C.E., carrying water from 8 miles
away.
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The Hellenizing of the Republic
A Roman aqueduct
Photo credit:  Joyce Salisbury
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The Hellenizing of the Republic
Concrete: A New Building Material
– Concrete: Roman engineers discovered a new building
material by mixing volcanic brick-earth with lime and
water, creating a durable and waterproof substance.
– Pantheon: The Romans used this material to build temples
as well as practical structures. One of the most famous
concrete structures is the Pantheon, a temple built to all of
the gods, built around 125 C.E. and still standing today.
The porch and columns in front demonstrate the Hellenistic
influence, but its massive concrete dome is a purely Roman
invention.
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The Hellenizing of the Republic
Latin Comedy and the Great Prose Writers, 240-44 B.C.E.
– Comic Plays: The earliest surviving Roman literature are
examples of comic plays. Plautus (205-185 B.C.E.) and Terence
(190-159 B.C.E.) used Greek models, but modified them for
Italian audiences.
– Cicero: The great orator’s career coincided with the Republic’s
decline, and his varied prose writings show him to be concerned
with public matters and issues of morality. Though they show
him to be self-centered and vindictive, he was a master Latin
stylist whose writings were used in textbooks.
– Caesar’s Writings: Wrote detailed accounts of his conquest of
Gaul, which is written in clear and concise Latin. These accounts
helped to further his political career.
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The Twilight of the Republic
The Reforms of the Gracchi, 133-123 B.C.E.
– The Gracchi Brothers: These two me, Tiberius and Gaius
Gracchi, were of noble birth, but made it their mission to aid the
Roman poor.
– Tiberius’s Reforms: Tiberius became tribune of the plebeians in
133 B.C.E. He saw Rome’s problems as linked to the decline of
small farmer-soldiers.
– The Land Issue: Tiberius proposed a law that would redistribute
land to landless Romans. The law passed, but only a small
amount of money was disbursed to execute it.
– Political Murder: When Tiberius declared that he was running
for a second term as tribune (even though this was not the
custom), a riot ensued and he and 300 of his followers were
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killed.
The Twilight of the Republic
The Reforms of the Gracchi, 133-123 B.C.E.
– Gaius’s Reforms: Tiberius’s law continued to operate after his
death, but not effectively. In 123, Gaius became tribune to
continue his brothers’ work. He built granaries, roads, and
bridges to better the distribution of grain in the city. He put price
caps on grain. He allowed the equestrians (wealthy plebeians) to
become tax collectors in the provinces, giving them more
influence.
– The Senate Threatened: The Senate viewed Gaius’s reforms as
threatening their power, with cheapening grain prices weakening
patron/client relations. Gaius and 250 of his followers were
assassinated by allies of senate, the deed being arranged by on of
the consuls.
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The Twilight of the Republic
Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars,
123-46 B.C.E.
– Death of Gracchi: The death of Gracchi did not solve
problems, but started a cycle of disorder and violence. But
the brothers had started a new republican style of
government, with more wealth and influence spread among
the equestrians and plebeians.
– Populares vs. Optimates: The continuing struggle was
between the populares (those who supported giving the
plebeians and equestrians more power) and the optimates
(those who wished to preserve the traditional power of the
Senate).
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– Marius:
The Twilight of the Republic
Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars,
123-46 B.C.E.
– Marius: In the chaos after the Gracchi, Gaius Marius (ca.
157 – 86 B.C.E.) was the first general to come to power
with the support of the army. There was a shortage of
soldiers, so he did away with the property requirement for
soldiers and promised them land in return for service. In
campaigns in Africa and Europe, he and his second-incommand, Sulla, had smashing success.
– Sulla: Lucius Cornelius Sulla (ca. 138 – 78 B.C.E.), an
aristocrat and student of Marius, resented that his mentor
received all the credit for his military victories.
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The Twilight of the Republic
Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars,
123-46 B.C.E.
– Sulla vs. Marius: After Marius retired, Sulla became the
leading military figure, commanding six legions and
becoming governor of the wealthy Asia Minor province.
The assembly thought Sulla too powerful, and called
Marius out of retirement to challenge him. Sulla marched
on Rome, and the Forum itself became a battleground.
– Sulla’s Dictatorship: Sulla restored the long-dormant
office of dictator, but illegally did away with the time limit,
and took up the cause of the optimates.
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The Twilight of the Republic
Populares vs. Optimates: The Eruption of Civil Wars,
123-46 B.C.E.
– The First Triumvirate (60-49 B.C.E.): After Sulla’s fall,
three leaders circumvented the usual institutions to declare
a private alliance between the three of them: Pompey,
beloved of the optimates; Julius Caesar, a noble defender of
the populares; and Crassus, a fabulously wealthy
businessman who had also crushed Spartacus’s uprising.
Caesar’s daughter, Julia, married Pompey to seal the
alliance, but she soon died in childbirth. Crassus died while
fighting in the east.
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The Twilight of the Republic
Julius Caesar, 100-44 B.C.E.
– Civil War: After Julia’s death, there were no bonds
holding Caesar and Pompey together, so civil war soon
broke out, with battles taking place around the Roman
world.
– Pompey’s Defeat: After losing a decisive battle in Greece
in 48 B.C.E., Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was
assassinated. Caesar had followed Pompey to Egypt, where
he became involved with Queen Cleopatra VII (r. 51-30
B.C.E.), who bore him a son.
– Caesar’s Return: In 46 B.C.E., Caesar made a triumphant
return to Rome, and used his brilliant administrative
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capacities to plan out major reforms and projects.
The Twilight of the Republic
The Roman Republic Ends
– Governing the Republic: Caesar could not figure out how to
govern the Republic. He took the title of dictator, but refused to
step down at the end of the emergency. He denied the title of
king, but often wore royal garments and put his image on coins,
breaking the tradition of not doing so for living Romans.
– Caesar’s Murder: Caesar’s rise greatly pleased the populares,
but even his supporters were outraged by his increasingly royal
trappings. He had shrunken the role of the optimates, leading to a
plot that ended in Caesar’s death. Even his friend and protégé,
Brutus, joined. On March 15, the “ides” as the Roman termed it,
he was stabbed to death as he approached the Senate chamber.
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