Transcript Investigating the Social World

Social Research
Methods
Practicalities of research
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A. Text book approach vs
Alternative
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Text book model
Don’t collect data until you have planned what
you are doing.
especially for experiments and surveys.
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Text book model
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Focus -> Research Question -> Research
Strategy -> Methods -> Data Collection ->
Analysis/Interpretation -> Write Report
But this is idealised
May be over-neat, over-linear, post hoc tidying
up, a constructed logic.
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Alternative
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Garbage can model.
Messy combination of
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Theory,
Method,
Resources,
Solutions.
In differing order. Some at the same time as others.
Idea that research is as reported in “research
paper” is a fiction.
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B. Access needs to be
negotiated
1.
2.
3.
Allow time for it to take place
Use friends, relative, etc. (A sponsor is good)
Use non-threatening language e.g.
Threatening
Research
Interview
Publish
4.
Equivalent
Inquiry, learning from your
experience
Conversation
Write an account.
Deal positively with reservations
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B. Access needs to be
negotiated cont.
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Offer a report. N.B. this is not the journal article, but
done especially for the organisation. Could make
recommendations.
Find out who you need to negotiate with
Prepare an outline of your study
Make a formal request for access (check informally
before how to do this)
Discuss the study with “gatekeepers” Try to
anticipate sensitive issues
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B. Access needs to be
negotiated cont.
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Discuss the study with likely participants
Modify the study in the light of discussions,
if necessary and if appropriate.
Consider using a “Fully informed consent
form”
See Robson, C (1993) Real World Research, box 10.8
for an example
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C. External Access vs
“Insider” research
Insider = prior to research
you already have a position
in the organisation
Advantages
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1.
2.
3.
Insider knowledge - historical, developmental, political,
people
“Street credibility” - already known, trustworthy - OR
NOT!
No travel
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C. External Access vs
“Insider” research cont.
Disadvantages
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2.
3.
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New, additional role may produce conflict
Difficult to interview people above/below in
organisation
Maintaining objectivity
Having to live with mistakes
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Also
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D
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E. Pilot Test out designs
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Get organised
essential for experiments and surveys
F. Work on your relationships
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all the way through a project, not just at the start.
Keep people “on board”
Don’t let resentment, antagonism etc. build up against you.
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And…
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G. Don’t just disappear at the end
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This may not affect you much in the short term,
But it may affect future researchers.
You may want to go back at some stage (e.g. to
check things)
H. Be prepared to modify
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e.g. Catherine Hakim’s idea of “trading down”
accept a lesser project if that is all that is possible
rather than nothing at all.
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Reporting of research
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Essential part of research = making public
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Reporting format depends on nature and purpose of study
esp. idea of ‘Audience’ is important
Examples are:
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Scientific journal format.
for academic/professional audience
e.g. postgraduate dissertation.
Technical Report – Writing for a “client”
Oral (handout) = presentation
Poster
Pamphlet
Press release
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Reporting of research cont.
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Alternative literary presentations are possible
Portrayal, Adversarial, Dialogue etc.
One project may demand more than one type
of report
Always produce to good professional
standards
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Spelling, grammar, layout, design, reproduction,
binding.
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Ethics of publication
Legitimate expectation is that findings get out into
the public domain (Publish or Perish!)
Needs to keep to assurances of
anonymity/confidentiality
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2.
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e.g. use pseudonyms, alter non-important details
Given fact that you have taken reasonable
precautions over 2. then publish.
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beware, when negotiating access etc. of giving away your
rights to publish.
Consider legitimate interest of
sponsors/gatekeepers before publishing
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but beware of allowing them a censorship role.
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Typical Scientific Journal
Format
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Each journal has its own
detailed format.
Follow the journal. e.g.
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Title
Abstract
Introduction
Methods/procedures (participants, samples, appropriate
materials)
Results
Discussion
Bibliography
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Typical Scientific Journal
Format cont.
Language
 Traditionally this is in the impersonal, past tense,
and passive voice
 e.g. A sample of 10 respondents was taken and
each was given same attitude test.
 not. We used 10 respondents and they all took the
same attitude test.
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However, this is now changing.
More use of the personal, active voice and even
present tense. BUT follow the journal format.
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Technical Reports
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Find out what is expected, ask. Look at
other “good” reports.
Provide an Executive Summary. 1 or 2
pages only, summarising key points.
Put as much as possible (esp. of methods
details) in appendices
Present to professional standards.
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Revising the Draft
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See Robson 1993 pg. 427
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Ethics
No hard and fast rules. Even the most suspect
activities might be justifiable
Examples of suspect activities.
1. Involve people without their knowledge or consent.
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2.
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But often not an issue e.g. observing aggression in a
football crowd.
Needs Informed consent. i.e. not just saying yes, but also
knowing what’s involved.
Coerce people into participation (e.g. Students get
credit for taking part)
Withholding information about the true nature of the
research. (e.g. Milgram)
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Ethics cont.
Otherwise deceiving participants (e.g. covert
observation)
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Indicator is reaction of people when deception is revealed.
Inducing people to commit acts diminishing their
self-esteem - make a fool of themselves.
Violating code of self determinism (e.g. studies
seeking to promote individual change.)
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e.g. behaviour modification - especially where people
cannot give consent.
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Ethics cont.
Exposing people to mental and physical stress or
risks
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Should not be greater than they would experience anyway
in their lives.
Invading people’s privacy
Withholding benefits from some participants
(compared with other groups)
Not treating people fairly, or with consideration or
with respect.
Discouraging people from withdrawing before the
end of the research.
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Codes of practice.
Most professions have this. BPS, BSA
Costs to participants can be balanced by benefits.
e.g.
1. Advance in theory, better understanding of people
and society
2. Advance in knowledge which is of practical value.
3. Gains for participants (e.g. self-understanding,
contribution to social/personal problems - smoking,
agoraphobia, gambling)
4. for the researcher - fame, career etc.
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