Transcript Document

5
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Personality and Sociocultural Development
Chapter 5
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Infancy and Toddlerhood
Personality and Sociocultural Development
• The Foundations of Personality and Social
Development
• The Development of Trust
• Attachment
• Separating from the Caregiver
• The Family System: A Broader Context
• Infants and Toddlers with Special Needs
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Foundations of Personality
and Social Development
• Emotional Development
– In the first two years of life, babies develop
attachment to caregivers
– They learn to separate and gain a secure
sense of themselves
– The development of emotions and emotional
self-control depends on interactions that occur
between infants and caregivers
– Infant emotional well-being depends on
effective parent-child communication
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Temperament
• Temperament is the inborn, characteristic way a person
reacts to the world
• Thomas and Chess concluded that there are three
temperament styles:
– Easy: 40% of children
– Difficult: 10% of children
– Slow-to-warm-up: 15% of children
– Other (combination of other three styles): 35%
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Video Clip
Interview with Thomas and Chess on the
basic styles of temperament
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mgXwCqzh9B8
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Video Clip
Applied-type description of temperament
and the importance of “match”
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CyVYQzsQ-CY
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Styles of Temperament
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Temperament
• Rothbart and colleagues developed a more
precise measure of infant temperament
• These dimensions of temperament have shown
stability across the lifespan
• Rothbart’s studies suggest that temperament
has a strong biological base
• Temperament style may change through
interactions with family and other caregivers
• “Fit” of parent and child temperaments is an
important determinant of infant-caregiver
interaction and child adjustment
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Rothbart’s Scale of Infant
Temperament
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The Development of Trust
• Erikson’s first development task – trust versus
mistrust
• Feeding and Comfort
– Feeding and comforting behaviors are key to
development of trust
– Infants develop trust when they come to expect their
needs will be met
– A balance needs to be struck between trust in the
caregiver and the need to teach the child to form a
healthy sense of mistrust necessary for self-protection
– Cultural differences exist in feeding and comforting
practices
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Attachment
• Attachment is the emotional bond with caregivers.
• Attachment to primary caregiver usually occurs by 8 to 9
months of age.
• Mary Ainsworth studied attachment with 12-to-18-monthold toddlers in a setting known as the “strange situation.”
• Ainsworth concluded that there are two main styles of
attachment:
• Secure
• Insecure
– Resistant
– Avoidant
– Disorganized/disoriented
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Video Clip
Ainsworth’s strange situation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QTsewNrHUHU
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Ainsworth’s Strange-Situation
Paradigm
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Attachment
• Effects of Attachment
– Longitudinal studies show dramatic differences in personality
and social development of securely and insecurely attached
infants as early as 18 months
– Secure infants are more curious, sociable, independent, and
competent than their insecurely attached peers
– Insecure children may exhibit hyperactivity or chronic stress,
higher levels of aggressiveness, depression, and have feeding
problems
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Explaining Attachment
• Why and how does the attachment relationship
develop?
– Conditioning and reinforcement based on needs
being met
– Attachment may be an imprinting behavior
– Harry Harlow’s studies suggest that a social bond is
more important than food and physical presence
– According to Bowlby, attachment depends on the
synchrony between infant and caregiver
– When parents are responsive, stronger attachment
results
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Video Clip
Harlow’s test of the importance of contact
comfort
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLrBrk9DXVk
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Bowlby’s Stages of Attachment
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Attachment and Trust
• Securely attached infants are more apt to
achieve trust
• When attachment goes awry, mistrust is
likely to develop
• Insecure attachment may mean that
children are emotionally and physically
deprived, even subject to abuse and
neglect
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Separating from the Caregiver
• Stranger anxiety – fear of strangers
• Separation anxiety – fear of separation from caregiver
• Both are closely tied to cognitive development.
• Separation anxiety may result when infants are exposed
to the unexpected—discrepancy hypothesis
• Infants may express anxiety when they see it in others,
as they engage in social referencing
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The Development of Autonomy
• During second year, children establish a
sense of their own autonomy
• According to Erikson, this stage is a conflict
between autonomy versus shame and
doubt
• Autonomy is facilitated when trust has been
established in infancy
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The Development of Autonomy
• Parents must set limits on children’s
behavior through use of appropriate
discipline
• Appropriate discipline is, in effect,
feedback about the child’s behavior
• Feedback may include praise or scolding
• Negative feedback must focus on the
behavior, not the child
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Prosocial Behavior
• During the second year, children learn to
cooperate, share, help and respond
emphatically to others—prosocial behavior
• The development of empathy—the ability to
understand another’s feelings and perspective—
is closely linked to secure attachment
• Children of warm and loving mothers are more
likely to express empathy at the age of 2
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Development of Self
• By 7 months, children are beginning to realize they are
separate and unique beings (and this is when they
develop stranger anxiety)
• They begin to learn that they can make things happen
• By 18 months they can recognize themselves in the
mirror
• They become aware of their sex and start to exhibit
gender-specific behaviors at about 21 months
• By the end of their second year, their language is filled
with references to “me” and “mine,” a sure sign of a
sense of self
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Attachment and Separation
• Becoming attached and learning to separate from
the caregiver are fundamental development tasks
of the first two years of life
• Temperament, attachment, social referencing,
parental discipline, and development of selfconcept are all factors in the development of
personality during infancy and toddlerhood
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The Family System:
A Broader Context
• Fathers play a greater role in childrearing in the United
States today than they have in the past
• Mothers are still the primary caregivers in most U.S.
families
• Fathers tend to be more physical and spontaneous
with play
• Other family members assist in child care, especially in
collectivist cultures
• Grandparents usually form their own attachment
relationship with children
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Child Care
• Due to modernization and social changes, many more
women work out side the home
• Child care is needed in most U.S. households of infants
and toddlers today
• 60% of mothers with children under the age of 3 and
63% of mothers with children ages 3 to 5 work outside
the home and need child care
• There is almost no public or government assistance for
childcare, unless the family has a very low income
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Infants and Toddlers with Special
Needs
• Visual Impairments
– Unknowing caregiver may mistake poor vision for lack
of responsiveness
• Hearing Impairments
– May not be detected until child is 2 years or older
– Hard-of-hearing child may be mistaken as being
disobedient
• Severe Disabilities
– Such as cerebral palsy or severe retardation may put
children at risk for parental rejection or withdrawal
– Having a severely disabled child puts stress on family
and challenges caregivers
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Abuse and Neglect
• Child Abuse
– Intentional infliction of physical or psychological injury
• Child Neglect
– Failure to respond to and provide for needs of child; may be
unintentional
– More subtle than abuse
• Effects of abuse and neglect
– Interferes with attachment
– May lead to developmental delays (cognitive and language)
– Failure-to-thrive syndrome
– Children may need to be removed from abusive and neglectful
homes and placed in foster care
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Summary
• During the first two years of life, infants
experience social and emotional development,
as they learn emotional control and establish
critically important relationships with their
caregivers
• Babies develop attachments to their caregivers
and learn to separate from them as they gain a
secure sense of themselves
• Temperament refers to the inborn, characteristic
way a person reacts to the world, and
temperament is often stable across development
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Summary
• Erik Erikson saw the task of this stage of
development as achieving a sense of trust
versus a sense of mistrust
• Trust development when infants feel that they
can depend on their caregivers to meet their
needs
• Attachment usually occurs by 8 or 9 months, and
it is the most influential social relationship that
infants establish
• Harlow’s research with infant monkeys showed
that healthy attachment requires more than food
and physical presence—it is a social bond
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Summary
• Emotional and social development takes place
within the context of the family
• Since the mid-20th century, fathers in the United
States have played an increasingly important
role in child care, but the primary responsibility
for child care still falls to the mother
• Grandparents fill an important role in child care,
especially in single-parent families or when both
parents work, and 61% of mothers of children
under the age of 3 work outside the home.
• Finding good and reliable child care is a major
challenge for working parents
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Summary
• Children with special needs provide special challenges
to parents and caregivers, especially children with
severe disabilities
• Child abuse and neglect impact a child’s physical,
cognitive, and emotional development Attachment is
particularly affected.
• Programs are needed to address the underlying causes
of abuse, such as poverty, drug abuse and mental illness
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