Transcript Air

Air
Human beings need quality air for health
and well-being.
Air composition
Air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen CO2 and some
inert gases.
It also consists of water vapours of varying quantity.
Air also contains numerous harmful substances:
natural pollutants such as dust and volcanic ash,
and pollutants that are by-products of human
activity.
Atmosphere
The atmosphere consists of layers of air covering the
Earth.
Plants and animals rely on the gases in the atmosphere.
Plants need CO2 for the process of photosynthesis and
release oxygen as a result.
Animals -- including human beings -- need oxygen to live and
release CO2 as they exhale.
The CO2 is then taken up again by plants, forming a cycle of
life in the biosphere.
• In the modern world, however, industrial
activity, the burning of fossil fuels, waste
treatment, intensive agriculture and many
other economic activities lead to air
pollution.
• Air pollution is harmful to humans, as well
as to plants, animals and their natural
habitats.
• It even brings about changes in the Earth's
climate.
• It was long believed that air pollutants, once released, were
diluted to negligible concentrations in the atmosphere.
• Measurements have shown this belief to be flawed, if not
misleading.
•
•
•
•
High concentrations of primary pollutants can occur within
and around emission areas.
Nearly all large particles are deposited locally.
Local weather is an important factor in determining shortterm pollution levels.
However, local emissions may have regional and global
implications.
For example, CFCs emitted at the surface are responsible
for ozone layer depletion that occurs at an altitude of 20-30
kilometres in the stratosphere.
Ambient air pollutants
Chemical compounds present in the atmosphere are
considered ambient air pollutants when they occur
in unnaturally high concentrations and have the
potential to cause harm to the environment and
human health.
The traditional air pollutants include SO2, NOx, CO,
lead, particulate matter (PM) and VOCs.
• Hazardous air pollutants include:
•
metals and metalloids, such as cadmium, mercury
and arsenic;
•
respirable mineral fibres, such as asbestos and
glass micro-fibres;
•
inorganic gases, such as fluorides, chlorine,
cyanide and phosgene; and
•
organic compounds, such as aldehydes, aromatic
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and dioxins.
Efectos en la salud de contaminates del aire
• Ozone cause pulmonary damage, nose
and throat irritation and headaches
• Fine particles and heavy metals cause
irritation and damage to respiratory
functions and can possess mutagenic
and carcinogenic properties
• VOC have wide-ranging impacts, from
olfactory irritations to mutagenic and
carcinogenic effects (benzene).
• CO affects tissue oxygenation.
• NOxcause acid rain.,have respiratory
effects and inhibit plant growth
• SO2 exacerbates respiratory pathology
and causes acid rain.
• Exposure to dioxins increases the risk of
cancer.
• Scientists believe that dioxins hinder the
immune system and alter the
concentration of reproductive hormones.
Tipos de contaminación aerea
• Summer smog
When the sun shines, the gases
exhausted from cars (such as NOx and
VOCs) combine to form ozone. Although
the Earth needs ozone in the upper
atmosphere, its effects at low altitudes are
extremely harmful; more than 100 million
people are affected in Europe alone.
Winter smog
Winter smog is created when pollutants are trapped by a
mass of cold air hovering over a city, causing them to build
up (especially SO2, NOx and particles).
• The worst pollution tends to occur in urban environments,
where two of every three Europeans live today.
Severe winter smog episodes frequently create health
hazards in parts of Central and Eastern Europe in the
densely populated areas of, for example, the Czech
Republic, eastern Germany and Poland
•
Combustion processes, including residential heating,
power production and industry, are the main sources of
pollution.
Urban air pollution
Urban areas are growing worldwide, as are their airpollution levels.
Europe, for example, is a highly urbanised continent,
with more than 70 percent of its inhabitants living in
urban areas.
Traffic, combustion and industrial production lead to
airborne emissions with elevated concentrations of
pollutants.
This pollution gives rise to a range of problems such
as health risks, accelerated deterioration of building
materials, damage to historical monuments and
harm to vegetation within and around cities.
Air pollution from transport
*Smog occurrences and long-term average
concentrations of harmful compounds such as lead,
benzene, particulate matter and benzopyrene are
significantly increased by road-transport emissions.
Road transport also contributes more than half of
NOx emissions and 35 percent of VOC emissions.
• Diesel-engine vehicles also produce very fine
particulate matter, which is extremely harmful to
human health.
A significant air pollution problem in Scandinavian
countries results from the use of studded tyres in
winter.
• These tyres wear down the surfaces of roads and
produce grit, which becomes suspended in the air.
Air pollution from industry
• Air pollution is also caused by industry.
• The level of impact of the emission source depends
on the height of the smokestack and the prevailing
wind direction.
• Primary pollutants with longer residence times
include acidifying compounds (such as SO2, NOx
and ammonia) and aerosol-bound pollutants (such
as dust, heavy metals and persistent organic
pollutants).
• "Hot spot" air pollution is a term used to describe
high, short-term pollution concentrations.
• Populations near pollution sources are at risk of
exposure.
• Hot spot pollution includes urban streets with busy
traffic and the impact of industrial stacks in cities.
Regional air pollution
• Pollutants originating from sulphur and nitrogen
oxides, as well as ammonia emissions, can be
transported long distances downwind and deposited
onto natural surfaces.
• Severe problems (such as the acidification and
contamination of soils and surface water) can result,
which dramatically affect the diversity and
conditions of ecosystems, including forests and
crops.
• Fish dieback is a serious problem in regions
susceptible to freshwater acidification .
• The highest deposition levels in Europe are found in
the highly populated and industrialised zones
between Poland and the UK.
Global air pollution
• The build-up of long-life pollutant
compounds alters the atmosphere's
composition, chemistry and dynamics.
• It also leads to possible climatic changes
and the depletion of the shield protecting
against solar UV-radiation provided by the
stratospheric ozone layer .
• Europe's contribution to most man-made
emissions of greenhouse gases and ozonedepleting compounds is disproportionately
large in relation to its geographical area and
population size.
• Water
Water is a unique component of our
planet. It is also a commodity to manage
and sell, and is the object of many
controversial economic interests and
complex social interrelations.
• Water properties
Water is at once simple and complex. A
water molecule is made up of only three
atoms — two hydrogen and one oxygen.
The configuration of this building block,
however, produces a molecule with almost
magical properties.
• Some physical and chemical properties
Water molecules are attached to each
other, creating hydrogen bonds.
• These strong bonds determine almost
every physical characteristic of water and
many of its chemical properties.
• Water is the only substance present in
nature in three forms: solid, liquid and
gaseous.
Pure water at sea level boils at 100
degrees Celsius and freezes at 0 degrees.
• At higher elevations, where atmospheric
pressure is lower, water's boiling
temperature is lower.
• This effect explains why it takes longer to
boil an egg at higher altitudes.
• Dissolving a substance in water lowers the
water's freezing point, which is why people
spread salt on streets in winter to prevent
ice formation.
Water is called the universal solvent.
• It can dissolve more substances than any
other solvent.
• There is hardly a substance known that
has not been identified as soluble in the
Earth's waters.
• Water molecules, as well as binding to
each other, bind to many other
substances, such as glass, cotton, plant
tissue and soil.
• This is called adhesion.
Importance to life
• Nearly all substances become heavier and thicker when
converted from a liquid to a solid state.
• Water, however, increases in volume and becomes
lighter when it turns into ice.
• This property is of vital importance for sustaining life in
basins during winter.
A drop of rainwater falling through the air dissolves
atmospheric gases.
• When rain reaches the Earth, it affects the quality of the
land, lakes and rivers.
• Water can store huge quantities of energy,
which can turn oceans, seas and lakes into
giant heat reservoirs.
• This particular property influences climates
in areas situated near water basins.
• It is also due to its energy-retaining quality
that water is widely used for cooling and
transferring heat in thermal and chemical
processes.
• Water-surface tension is a measure of its
surface-film strength.
• The attraction between water molecules
creates a strong film, which among other
liquids is surpassed only by mercury.
• This surface tension permits water to hold up
substances heavier and denser than itself.
• Some aquatic insects, such as the water
spider, rely on surface tension to walk on
water.
• Water surface tension is essential for the
transfer of energy from wind that creates
waves.
• Waves are necessary for rapid oxygen
diffusion in lakes and seas.
• In a thin glass capillary, for example, when
molecules at the edge reach for and adhere
to the molecules of glass just above them,
they tow other water molecules at the same
time.
• The water surface, in turn, pulls the entire
body of water upward until the downward
force of gravity is too great to be overcome.
• This process is called "capillary action," and
it allows a sponge to be used to soak up
spilled water.
• Without this property, the nutrients needed
by plants and trees would remain in the soil.
• A large percentage of our blood is water.
• People must exchange about two litres of
water per day in order to regulate their body
temperature.
Places where water is preserved on land are
called water basins.
• Water can be found in rivers, lakes, pools,
animals, plant stems and under the ground.
Water in motion
• Water is constantly moving between the
Earth and the atmosphere.
• The sun and wind evaporate water from
soil, plant leaves and animals, and from
the surfaces of rivers, lakes and oceans.
• This process changes water to a gaseous
form called water vapour.
• Water vapour condenses under certain
conditions and falls back to earth as rain
or snow.
• Precipitation that ultimately reaches
streams and rivers, often transporting
other material with it, is known as runoff.
• Rain fills up rivers and lakes.
• Rivers flow into the oceans.
• Some precipitation penetrates the ground
and forms groundwater.
• In this way water circulates constantly
from the earth to the atmosphere and back
again, in what is called the hydrological
cycle .
• The hydrological cycle
Transpiration
Water vapour is also emitted from plant
leaves by a process called transpiration.
• Every day an actively growing plant
transpires 5-10 times as much water as it
can hold.
• Condensation
As water vapour rises, it cools and
eventually condenses, usually on tiny
particles of dust in the air. When it
condenses it becomes a liquid again or
turns directly into a solid (ice, hail or
snow). These water particles then collect
and form clouds.
• Water table
The water table is the level to which water
rises in an open well.
• Evaporation
As water is heated by the sun, its surface
molecules become sufficiently energised
to break free of the force binding them
together.
• They then evaporate and rise into the
atmosphere as invisible vapour
• Percolation
Some precipitation and melted snow
moves down through the soil, percolates
and infiltrates through cracks and pores in
soil and rocks until it reaches the water
table, where it becomes groundwater.
• Groundwater
Subterranean water is held in cracks and
pores.
• Depending on the geology, groundwater
can flow to support streams.
• It can also be tapped by wells.
• Some groundwater is extremely old and
may have been under the Earth for
thousands of years
• Runoff
Excessive rain or melting snow can
produce overland flow to creeks and
ditches.
• Runoff is the visible flow of water into
rivers, creeks and lakes as the water
stored in basins drains out.
• Precipitation
Precipitation, in the form of rain, snow and
hail, comes from clouds.
• Propelled by air currents, clouds move
around the world.
• When rising over mountain ranges, they
cool, becoming so saturated with water
that it begins to fall as rain, snow or hail,
depending on the temperature of the
surrounding air.
• Water quality
Impact on human health and food
•
The contamination of drinking water and
food with microbiological agents can
cause a variety of communicable
diseases, such as hepatitis A,
salmonellosis or shigellosis.
• In Europe, microbiological contamination of
bathing water results in over two million
cases of gastrointestinal diseases annually.
• Nitrate concentrations of groundwater in
several areas across Europe with intensive
agriculture were found to exceed guideline
levels.
• These levels were established to protect
infants from serious, life-threatening
diseases (for example, ethaemoglobinemia).
• Concentrations of arsenic found in water
can also lead to health problems such as
skin cancer.
Impact on plants and animals
• The lack of sufficient oxygen (due to
organic waste pollution or the presence of
nitrates and phosphates in water) can
cause the death of fish and other forms of
aquatic life.
• Chemicals such as inorganic and organic
compounds, oil, gasoline and pesticides
harm fish and other aquatic life and
depress crop yields.
• Sediment (insoluble particles of soil
suspended in water) clouds water, inhibits
photosynthesis and destroys the aquatic
food chain.
Water resources
• Surface water and groundwater are
important elements of the Earth's
hydrological cycle.
• Surface water includes rivers, lakes and
glaciers.
• Groundwater remains one of the leaststudied and most difficult water resources
to determine.
• Surface water
In Europe, annual runoff is greatest in
western Norway.
• Considerably less is seen in parts of
Spain, central Hungary, eastern Romania
and the southern part of Russia.
• The differences in river flow regimes are
apparent in Western Europe (where flows
are at a minimum in summer and late
autumn), mountain-fed catchments (where
flows are greatest in summer), and
Eastern and Northern Europe (where most
runoff occurs during the spring-melt
period).
• Many European river flow regimes are
heavily affected by human activities such
as water abstraction and damming
• Groundwater
Natural groundwater resources are stored in
aquifers, which are permeable rock
formations, or in unconsolidated deposits
(sands, silts or gravels). The main
characteristics of groundwater systems are:
• invisible and relatively inaccessible
locations;
• low flow rates;
• long residence times; and
• slow reactions to changes on the surface.
• Groundwater plays a number of important
economic and ecological roles, as well as
being an essential element of human
health.
• Groundwater systems are normally very
stable, in both quantity and quality.
• However, the effects of pollution and
overexploitation could lead to drastic
changes, with the period of recovery
lasting centuries.
• Surface water is the main source for water
abstraction in Europe — about 70 percent
of the total abstraction on average.
• However, there is significant variation
among European countries .
• European water resources
Overall, there is no water shortage
problem in Europe.
• However, the amount of water available for
sustained consumption is very unevenly
distributed across the continent.
• There are extreme variations that range
from less than 100 cubic metres per capita
per year in Malta to more than 630,000
cubic meters per capita per year in
Iceland.
• Many European countries are heavily
dependent on external contributions of water
through transboundary rivers to meet their
demands.
• Countries located downstream of large
rivers (Moldova, Romania, Hungary,
Luxembourg and The Netherlands) receive
more than 75 percent of their flows from
other countries, which could result in a
dispute over transboundary water pollution
or the disposal of water resources.
Impacto humano
• Human impact on water
Water is used for agricultural purposes
(irrigation), by industry (production of
goods, and as a cooling and heating
agent) and for domestic purposes
(drinking, personal hygiene, washing,
recreation, etc.).
• In Europe as a whole, 53 percent of
transported surface water and
groundwater is used by industry.
• Twenty-six percent of it is used for
agriculture and only 19 percent for
domestic purposes.
• There is large variability in water
abstraction among various economic
sectors of European countries .
• Water pollution
There are several classes of common water
pollutants.
Disease-causing agents (pathogens)
• These include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and
parasitic worms that enter water from domestic
sewage and untreated human and animal
wastes.
• Every day about 14,000 people, half of them
children, die due to this type of water pollution
worldwide.
• Oxygen-demanding waste
•
This term refers to organic waste matter
requiring aerobic decomposition by
bacteria.
• Large populations of bacteria supported by
the presence of these wastes degrade
water quality by depleting it of dissolved
oxygen.
• This process can cause the death of fish
and other forms of oxygen-consuming
aquatic life.
• Water-soluble inorganic chemicals
•
These are acids, salts and compounds of
toxic metals such as mercury and lead.
• High levels of these chemicals can make
water unfit to drink, harm fish and other
aquatic life, depress crop yields and
accelerate the corrosion of machinery that
uses water.
Industry is the main source of watersoluble inorganic chemicals.
• Inorganic plant nutrients
These are water-soluble nitrates and
phosphates that can cause excessive
growth of algae and other aquatic plants.
• As these plants decay they deplete the
water of dissolved oxygen, which fish need
to survive.
People who drink water with excessive
levels of nitrates suffer a reduction in the
oxygen-carrying capacity of their blood.
• Agriculture is the main source of such
pollution.
• Organic chemicals
Organic chemicals include oil, gasoline,
plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents,
detergents and many other chemicals.
• They threaten human health and harm
fish and other aquatic life.
The main sources of such water pollution
are transport, industry, urban activities and
household cleaning.
• Sediment (suspended matter)
• Insoluble particles of soil and other solids
become suspended in water, mostly when
soil is eroded from the land.
• By weight, this is by far the biggest water
pollutant.
• Sediment clouds water, inhibits
photosynthesis and destroys the aquatic food
chain.
• Water can be the subject of
• radioactive pollution (caused by watersoluble, radioactive isotopes),
•
• thermal pollution (after using water to
cool down industrial and power plants) or
• genetic pollution (caused by accidental
introduction of non-native species such as
mussels and phytoplankton).
• Sources of water pollution
Wastewater treatment facilities
themselves, if operating incorrectly, can
cause water pollution.
•
• Sources of water pollution
Agricultural activities such as the
dispersion of pesticides, fertilisers and
other chemical products cause significant
air and water pollution
•
• Sources of water pollution
Bridge construction and riverbank
corrections can cause changes in river
flows and groundwater levels.
•
• Sources of water pollution
Petroleum-product and chemical spills
destroy aquatic ecosystems.
•
• Sources of water pollution
Many towns do not posses wastewater
treatment facilities.
• Direct wastewater discharges into rivers
destroy aquatic ecosystems.
•
• Sources of water pollution
Rivers are often polluted by sewage and
land runoffs
•
• Sources of water pollution
Dumping garbage into a body of water
decreases its quality and destroys aquatic
ecosystems.
•
• Sources of water pollution
Large animal concentrations in intensive
pig and poultry farms release a great deal
of waste.
• Discharging this waste into a river without
proper treatment can cause death to
aquatic flora and fauna and affect human
health.
•
• Wastewater management
In rural and suburban areas, sewage from
homes is usually discharged into a septic
tank.
• To avoid groundwater pollution, septic
tanks must be cleaned out every three to
four years by a specialised company.
• In urban areas, most waterborne wastes
from homes, businesses, factories and
storm runoff flow through a network of
sewer pipes to wastewater treatment
plants.
• Some cities have separate lines for storm
water runoff.
When sewage reaches a treatment
plant it may undergo as many as three
levels of purification.
• Treatment plant
Secondary sewage treatment
Secondary sewage treatment is a
biological process in which aerobic
bacteria are used to remove up to 90
percent of biodegradable, oxygendemanding organic waste.
• Sewage is usually pumped into a large
tank and mixed for several hours with
bacteria-rich sludge and oxygenating air
bubbles to facilitate the degradation of
microorganisms.
• The water then goes to a sedimentation
tank, where most of the suspended solids
and microorganisms settle out as sludge.
• The sludge produced from primary and secondary
treatment is broken down by anaerobic digestion
and then incinerated, dumped in a landfill or
applied to land as fertiliser.
Even after secondary treatment, however,
wastewater still contains some oxygen-demanding
wastes, suspended solids, 70 percent of its
phosphorus (mostly as phosphates), some
nitrates and a number of toxic metal compounds.
•
• Water: a conflict of interests
It is said that in the 19th century wars were
waged over metals, in the 20th century
over petrol, and if there is a war in the 21st
century, it will definitely be over sources of
drinking water.
There are 214 rivers and lakes on the
planet that belong to two or more countries
- 66 of these are shared by four or more
nations. Conflicts often result:
• The Nile
An Egyptian leader once threatened that
abuse of the Nile River was a declaration of
war. The waters of the longest river in the
world run through Tanzania, Rwanda, Zaire,
Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt.
When Ethiopia declared in 1990 that it
intended to build a huge reservoir on the
river, the Egyptian government reacted
negatively.
• At Egypt's request, Ethiopia was not granted
a loan to construct the dam, and the project
failed.
• The Ganges River
A water conflict over the Ganges River has
transpired between India and Bangladesh
for 25 years.
• A huge amount of its water is being
diverted by India's government to meet the
needs of giant cities such as Calcutta.
• In October 1995 more than 40 million
people in Bangladesh were dying of
hunger and thirst because India had
diverted this water to irrigate its
agricultural lands.
• The Danube River
The Danube River passes through nine
European countries.
• Water pollution caused by one country
often affects neighbouring environments
as much as its own.
• In February 2000 a large quantity of cyanide
was released from a gold mine in Romania,
causing the mass death of fish in two
Hungarian rivers flowing into the Danube.
• Experts declared the five-kilometre carpet of
dead fish floating on the river the greatest
ecological disaster in the area since the
Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986.
• Images of the river's casualties being hauled
away by train drew international attention.
• The pollution also affected countries
downriver from the spill.
• Water crisis hits home
In Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), the
need to address water problems is as
urgent as anywhere else in the world.
• Broadly speaking, the region's problems
include pollution and water quality
deterioration, water resource issues and
institutional and financial concerns.
• Water problems in CEE
Ecosystems in CEE are at risk due to land
conversion, changes in hydrological regimes,
pollution by inadequately controlled agricultural
discharges and the low level of wastewater
collection and treatment.
• Water quality improvement and pollution
control, including protection of surface and
groundwater and the marine environment of the
Baltic and Black seas, are urgent tasks for the
region.
• Rehabilitation of degraded areas, such as old
military camps and industrial sites, is also
essential for preserving the region's water
resources.
• Another group of problems for the region
involves coping with floods and droughts
and satisfying water demands.
• Flood management is a constant concern
in Poland, Lithuania and all countries
located in the Danube River basin. But
high water is a problem all over the region.
• Ironically, long-term droughts are a problem in the
same areas that are plagued by flooding.
•
•
The total loss of water from plant transpiration and
evaporation from the ground, known as
"evapotranspiration," is high in several parts of the
Danube Basin, and may exceed the total volume of
precipitation.
One example of a drought caused by
evapotranspiration in CEE can be observed along
the Tisza River, where the streams in the catchment
area are low.
• In the Baltics, the annual runoff from the Vistula and
Odra basins in dry years may be about 50 percent
less than the mean annual value.
• Water management in CEE
The institutional arrangements for managing
water in CEE are too complicated, not
transparent and not financially self-supporting,
according to Janusz Kindler and Laszlo
Somlyody, who contributed to the 2000 series of
reports entitled Water for the 21st Century:
Vision to Action.
• The principles of river basin management are
well known across the region, and some
countries even have river basin agencies.
• But those agencies are often not well
incorporated into the overall government
structure, according to Kindler and Somlyody.
• The situation is expected to improve as
the countries of the region seek to align
themselves with the European Union's
Water Framework Directive.
• The directive offers a clear mechanism for
reform of institutions dealing with water
management.
• Because rivers in the region pass through
many countries, flood control along them
requires international solutions.
• In August 2002, Hungarian Prime Minister
Peter Medgyessy took steps toward
achieving such a solution.
• He launched an initiative for regional
cooperation in addressing floods among
countries located in the Danube, Odra and
Elbe river basins.
• Paying for better management
Achieving alignment with EU regulations on
water will be costly. Investment needs in the
area of water supply and water sanitation are
enormous in both the rural and urban areas of
CEE.
• Kindler and Somlyody estimate that the
investment required to meet EU directives
ranges between USD 500 and 1,000 per capita
in the countries of the region.
• This is obviously a huge sum when compared to
the average, per-capita, gross domestic product
of CEE countries.
• Finding means for financing the work that is
needed, and using subsidies efficiently, are
therefore essential for countries seeking to
accede to the EU.
• Developing the economies in this region could
also make it easier for these countries to pay for
improvements in their water infrastructure.
• And CEE countries will have to build their
capacity to handle certain types of work,
including integrated water resources
management, environmental economics and
wastewater management.
• One important international effort that affects
CEE directly is the EU Water Initiative, a
strategic partnership between the EU, Africa and
12 countries from Eastern Europe, the Caucasus
and Central Asia.
• The aim of this initiative is to create a higher
efficiency of water-related development by
providing a platform to coordinate and
streamline activities.
• The EU, which says it is the largest donor in the
field of water with an average of EUR 1.4 billion
a year, has announced that it wants to serve as
a major driving force to meet goals set at the
World Summit on Sustainable Development in
Johannesburg in relation to water.
• CEE countries are increasingly playing a
role in international water initiatives.
• Along with these various international
efforts, these countries are addressing
water issues as they work toward
compliance with the EU Water Framework
Directive, which will reshape water
protection and water management in the
region.
— The Bulletin, December 2002
Agua y la gente
• Water and people
The Earth is called the Blue Planet
because of the proliferation of water, yet
only 0.6 percent of it is fit for drinking.
Only 3 percent of the water we use serves
an essential human need. The remainder
could be controlled and decreased.
• People are now realising that excessive
and unnecessary water use and increased
pollution of drinking water sources will lead
to catastrophe.
Since we all use water, we are all
responsible for saving it. The two basic
principles behind maintaining water
resources are: conserve and protect
• Conserve and protect
Scientists claim that when modern
technologies are applied, household water
consumption is reduced by one-third,
agricultural by one-half and industrial by
90 percent!
• Click on the pictures to find out what
needs to be done.
•
• Conserve and protect
Repair water pipes to minimise water lost
in transport.
•
• Conserve and protect
Implement the drop-method of agricultural
irrigation to increase water-use efficiency
by minimising evaporation losses.
•
• Conserve and protect
Introduce the circular mode of industrial
water supply.
•
• Conserve and protect
Impose an environmental taxation on
water that would cover all delivery,
management and purification costs.
•
• Conserve and protect
Build purification systems for wastewater
everywhere.