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Self-negotiation in Metaphor
Construction and Interpretation
隐喻构建与解读的主体自洽
王文斌
Ningbo University
2015/7/20
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I. Metaphor
 Traditional view:
 Metaphor is a stylistic figuration, a poetic
embellishment or a deviation from ordinary
usage, and sometimes even be considered
something absurd or false as being in
logical opposition to standard meaning.
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 Modern view:
 Metaphor is pervasive, not just in language,
but also in thought and action. Our ordinary
conceptual system, in terms of which we
both think and act, is fundamentally
metaphorical in nature.
 Cognitive approach to metaphor
 Cognitive linguists hold that the
production or comprehension of a metaphor
is based on our experience of the world and
the way we perceive and conceptualize it.
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II. A Profile of Western
Metaphor Studies
 The substitution theory (Aristotle)
The source substitutes a literal term (the
target), and the meaning of a metaphor can be
discovered by replacing the literal term, i.e.
we understand one name in terms of another.
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 The comparison theory (Aristotle)

A metaphor involves a comparison of the
source and the target.

It may be just a putting together of two things
to let them work together.

 It may be a study of them to see how they are
like and how they are unlike one another.
It may be a process of calling attention to
their likeness or a method of drawing attention to
certain aspects of the one through the co-presence
of the other.
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•



 The interaction theory (Richards; Black)
The source (the vehicle) and the target (the topic) are
interactive in constructing or interpreting a metaphor.
 The mapping theory (Lakoff; Lakoff & Johnson)
Metaphor is that we understand one experience in
terms of another, i.e. no metaphors can be
appropriately
produced
or
comprehended
independently of our experiential basis. We map one
domain onto another.


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S
T
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The
conceptual
blending
theory
(Fouconnier; Turner; Johnson)
 The source and the target are interactive in
producing or comprehending a metaphor, i.e.
metaphor is a cross-domain mapping.

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III. A Brief about Metaphor
Studies in China
我国早期没有隐喻的专门概念，在文献
中出现的只是泛指的比喻的“辟”、
“譬”、“比”、“依”等词语。 其实，
在古汉语的文献中，表示比喻的词语还
有“况”、“喻”、“拟”、“方”等。
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先秦时期，荀子就提出，“譬称以喻之，分
别以明之”。这是汉语中出现“喻”的最早概
念，并指出了“喻”的功能是为了“明”。与
荀子几乎同时代的墨子也谈到，“辟也者，举
他物而以明之也”（引自王希杰 1996：420）。
此话同样表明了比喻的功能。
 两汉时期的刘安曾提到，“假象取偶，以相
譬喻”。“取偶”是要求比喻使用者需善于寻
求不同事物之间的相同或相偶合之处，即西方
隐喻论中的“相似点”理论；其次，“偶”必
然意味着构成比喻的两个事物，即“此物”与
“彼物”，或Lakoff（1987）所说的“始源域”
与“目标域”。若不具备这两个事物，就谈不
上“相譬喻”。

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
魏晋南北朝时期，刘勰在《文心雕龙》（1981：395）中
指出，“夫比之为义，取类不常：或喻于声，或方于貌，
或拟于心，或譬于事”。此番话表明，比喻的目的是为了
取义，而用来比喻的事物却不固定，始源域的表现形式既
可以是事物的声音或形貌，也可以是主观意念或具体的事
实。在唐宋时期，皎然提出，“取象曰比，……如陶公以
孤云比贫土，鲍照以直比朱弦，以清比冰壶” 这表明比是
以象为始源域。陈骙对比喻具有十分独到的研究，首次提
出了隐喻概念。他在《文则》一书中率先提出，“取喻之
法，大概有十”：直喻、隐喻、类喻、诘喻、对喻、博喻、
简喻、详喻、引喻和虚喻。他对“隐喻”的看法是：其文
虽晦，义则可寻。他对“简喻”的看法是：其文虽略，其
意甚明。根据胡壮麟（2004：208）的观点，陈骙尽管使用
了“隐喻”这一概念，可他实际所指的却相当于现代汉语
修辞学中的“借喻”，而我们时下所说的“隐喻”却相当
于陈骙所提的“简喻”概念，即“A是B”式。这一表达式是
对隐喻的最基本的描写，是与他体系中的“直喻”（即
“明喻”）相对而言的。可不论怎样，汉语修辞研究中终
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
自宋代以降，我国在隐喻研究方面裹步不前，再也没
有超越前人的研究。直到1932年，陈望道发表了现代汉
语修辞学的奠基之作《修辞学发凡》一书，我国的隐喻
研究才有了新的起色。他（1932：77）在书中提到，思
想的对象同另外的事物有了类似点，文章上就用那另外
的事物来比拟思想的对象，这就是譬喻，而譬喻包括
“隐喻”和“明喻”。他同时提出，譬喻中存在三个成
分，即“正文”（目标域）、“譬喻”（始源域）和
“譬喻语词”（比喻词）。从隐喻学的角度看，陈望道
的主要贡献在于明确提出譬喻的基础是“类似点”，即
我们今天所说的“相似性”；他还分离出了隐喻概念，
并指出隐喻有详式和略式之分。隐喻的详式常借用比喻
词“是”或“也”，而隐喻的略式则常省略比喻词。这
一分析应该说是前无古人的，是隐喻研究的一大进步。
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
陈望道开辟了现代汉语隐喻研究之后，有许多学者在
探讨汉语修辞时均对隐喻寄予了深切的关注，如倪宝元
（1980：207）对隐喻作了定义，指出，暗喻又名隐喻，
是始源域和目标域都出现，而且两者之间有“是”（或
“成了”、“变成”等）起关联作用并表明两者之间的
比喻关系的一种比喻。潭永祥（1981）认为，统括于比
喻的明喻、隐喻和借喻这三个分类应有一个统一的标准，
其方法就是看始源域、目标域和比喻词这三个成分的出
现与否。若三者均出现，那就是明喻；若出现始源域和
目标域而不出现比喻词，那就是隐喻；若单单出现始源
域，那就是借喻。胡壮麟（2004：216）认为，这个分类
标准的设定，便于中国的隐喻研究同国外的隐喻研究接
轨。但是，就总体而言，中国关于隐喻的研究，尽管零
零星星也涉及到了其表现形式及其功能，可始终没有形
成有系统和有理论的研究，更未曾上升到认知的高度。
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IV. Self-negotiation Principle
linking
inference
Input1
Input2
washing
converging
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 The SNP for metaphor construction: If the addresser
intends to express what he perceives about the target
domain, he has to search for a source domain by means of
his habitual associative thinking and taking advantage of
his world knowledge, experience, memory, his insight and
perception with a view to linking the two domains. The
success of the linking is determined by washing. In the
washing process, if the addresser finally self-confirms by
self-negotiation that the two domains are compatible with
each other in terms of at least one external feature or one
internal quality, then the linking will make a success, and
thus the two domains will get converged that will lead to
the formation of a metaphor. Otherwise, the linking will
come to a failure, and thus the two domains cannot be
converged.
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 The SNP for metaphor interpretation: If the addressee
intends to interpret the source domain being the target one or
the source being like the target, then he has to search for the
compatibility between the source and the target by taking
advantage of his world knowledge, experience, memory, his
insight and perception. If the compatibility can be satisfied,
then he will self-confirm his own interpretation of the
metaphor, otherwise he will self-deny it. In the process, he has
to link the two domains. The success of the linking is
determined by washing, during which, if he finally selfconfirms by self-negotiation that the two domains are
compatible with each other in terms of at least one external
feature or one internal quality, then the linking will make a
success, and thus the two domains will get converged that
will result in the good understanding of a metaphor.
Otherwise, the linking will come to a failure, and thus the two
domains cannot be converged.
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
 The general SNP for metaphor
construction and interpretation: If the
subject intends to construct or interpret a
metaphor, he has to self-confirm that the
source domain and the target domain must
be compatible with each other in terms of at
least one external feature or one internal
quality. If the compatibility can be satisfied,
the subject will self-license the construction
or interpretation of a metaphor, otherwise,
he will self-deny it.
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 The cognitive activity of the SNP: The more
sufficient the subject’s individual cognitive
elements are such as his world knowledge, life
experience and memories, his deep insight into
and keen perception of an object, the stronger the
cognitive activity of the SNP will be for metaphor
construction or interpretation; otherwise, the
activity will be weak or even the principle will not
come into operation.
 Linking: The construction or interpretation of a
metaphor has to involve the linking of the two
mental input spaces. A metaphor cannot be formed
or read without linking. Therefore, the mental
operation of the linking mechanism should go first
in the construction or interpretation of a metaphor.17
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 Washing: The success of the linking of the
two mental input spaces involved in the
construction or interpretation of a metaphor
depends on the process of the washing
mechanism. After washing, if the subject
does not consider the two spaces to be
similar to each other in terms of at least one
external feature or one internal quality, then
the linking will come to a failure; otherwise,
it will make a success.
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 Converging: The ultimate aim of the linking and the washing of the two
mental input spaces involved in the construction or interpretation of a
metaphor is just for the converging of the two spaces. If they can finally
get converged, that means the linking and the washing are a success;
otherwise, that means they are a failure.
(1) Laws are like cobwebs, where the small flies are caught and the great
break through.
(2) Experience is a comb that life gives you after you lose your hair.
(3) 好女人是山，端庄大方；好女人是水，柔情绵绵；好女人是书，
满腔智慧；好女人是港，安全可靠。
(4) 男人如诗。女人们的任务就是：既要像读者一样地对那些优秀的
诗篇进行默记或朗诵，也要像编辑一样地对那些不好的诗篇进行
删改，若没有删改的价值，不妨弃之如敝屣。
(5) 爱情如烟火。
(6)我们清白得像天使。
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V. Subjectivity
(1)
心静如水；柔情似水；水性杨花；清澈如水；似
水流年；月华如水；秋露似水；似水年华；夜凉如水；
幽静若水；水一样朴素；写字如行云流水；智者乐山，
仁者乐水；上善若水，水善利万物而不争；君子之交
淡如水；好女人是水，柔情绵绵；问君能有几多愁，
恰似一江春水向东流；感受火一样的激情，水一样的
缠绵；冬去春来似水如烟；一峡相隔海天遥，最是亲
人似水长；古人今人若流水，共看明月皆如此；君子
得时如水；爱情如江水万年长；真情如水爱情如火；
立志如山，行道如水；等等。
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(2) Ideas are food: What he said left a bad taste in my
mouth

All this paper has in it are raw facts, half-baked
ideas, and warmed-over theories. There are too many
facts here for me to digest them all. I just can’t
swallow that claim. That argument smells fishy. Let
me stew over that for a while. Now there’s a theory
you can really sink your teeth into. We need to let that
idea percolate for a while. That’s food for thought.
He’s a voracious reader. We don’t need to spoon-feed
our students. He devoured the book. Let’s let that idea
simmer on the back burner for a while. This is the
meaty part of the paper. Let that idea jell for a while.
That idea has been fermenting for years.
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
Ideas are people: The theory of relativity
gave birth to an enormous number of ideas
in physics. He is the father of modern
biology. Whose brainchild was that? Look
at what his ideas have spawned. Those ideas
died off in the Middle Ages. His ideas will
live on forever. Cognitive psychology is still
in its infancy. That’s an idea that ought to be
resurrected. Where’d you dig up that idea?
He breathed new life into that idea.
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
Ideas are plants: His ideas have finally
come to fruition. That idea died on the vine.
That’s a budding theory. It will take years
for that idea to come to full flower. He
views chemistry as a mere offshoot of
physics. Mathematics has many branches.
That seeds of his great ideas were planted in
his youth. She has a fertile imagination.
Here’s an idea that I’d like to plant in your
mind. He has a barren mind.
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Ideas are products: We’re really turning
(churning, cracking, grinding) out new ideas.
We’ve generated a lot of ideas this week. He
produces new ideas at an astonishing rate. His
intellectual productivity has decreased in recent
years. We need to take the rough edges off that
idea, hone it down, smooth it out. It’s a rough idea;
it needs to be refined.
Ideas are commodities: It’s important how you
package your ideas. He won’t buy that. That idea
just won’t sell. There is always a market for good
ideas. That’s a worthless idea. He’s been a source
of valuable ideas. I wouldn’t give a plugged nickel
for that idea. Your idea don’t have a chance in the
intellectual marketplace.
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Ideas are resources: He ran out of ideas. Don’t
waste your thoughts on small projects. Let’s pool
our ideas. He’s a resourceful man. We’ve used up
all our ideas. That’s a useless idea. That idea will
go a long way.
Ideas are money: Let me put in my two cents’
worth. He’s rich in ideas. That book is a treasure
trove of ideas. He has a wealth of ideas.
Ideas are cutting instruments. That’s an incisive
idea. That cuts right to the heart of the matter. That
was a cutting remark. He’s sharp. He has a razor
wit. He has a keen mind. She cut his argument to
ribbons.
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Ideas are fashions: That idea went out of style
years ago. I hear sociobiology is in these days.
Marxism is currently fashionable in western
Europe. That idea is old hat! That’s an outdated
idea. What are the new trends in English criticism?
Old-fashioned notions have no place in today’s
society. He keeps up-to-date by reading the New
York Review of Books. Berkeley is a center of
avant-garde thought. Semiotics has become quite
chic. The idea of revolution is no longer in vogue
in the United States. The transformational
grammar craze hit the United States in the midsixties and has just made it to Europe.
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(3)
乡愁 (余光中)
小时侯，
乡愁是一枚小小的邮票，
我在这头，
母亲在那头。
长大后，
乡愁是一张窄窄的船票，
我在这头，
新娘在那头。
后来呵，
乡愁是一方矮矮的坟墓，
我在外头，
母亲在里头。
而现在，
乡愁是一湾浅浅的海峡，
我在这头，
大陆在那头。
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
(4)
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乡愁 (席慕蓉)
故乡的歌是一支清远的笛
总在有月亮的晚上响起
故乡的面貌却是一种模糊的怅惘
仿佛雾里的挥手别离
离别后
乡愁是一棵没有年轮的树
永不老去
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
(5)
乡愁 (林俊燕)
乡愁是一趟浅浅的水湾
暮日如血
薄雾如烟
我是那只被搁浅的小船
乡愁是一坛浓郁的醇酒
秋月似镜
桂香盈袖
我是那个疯疯痴痴的醉汉
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乡愁啊是一双忧郁的眼睛
杨柳依依
晓风残月
我是那一滴沧然落下的泪水
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(6)
女人好像咖啡，一种集众多的味道的极品生活的饮料。
女人的纯洁是Espresso，在生活深深的压力下却压榨出独特的品味，尝起来浓
浓的苦，想起来淡淡的香。
女人的浪漫是Cappuccino，可以不停地涌起丰厚、细腻、持久激情，停留在唇
边和舌尖是爱的狂潮。
女人的娇媚是特级哥伦比亚，隐隐约约，似有似无，但分明是将安静灵魂打扰，
并再也不能平静下去。
女人的美丽是蓝山，是美丽的名字，动人的体态，悠然的香味，是刻在眼睛里、
心里的影子，百转千回。
女人的爱情是巴西山度士，不是一次就可以尝它的味道的，但是，是可以多年
以后都难以忘怀的一段感觉。
母亲是黑咖啡，是可以在想起它的苦的时候记得她的醇厚流过心的甜。妻子是爱
尔兰咖啡，夹杂着多种异样的甘醇，似母，似女，似朋友。
恋人是雀巢，在轻松中完美，在简单中体会。
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VI. Similarity
 Physical similarity (the physical world)
 Psychological similarity (the imagined
world, the possible world)
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VII. Concluding remarks
 Metaphor is individual: possible multi-
interpretation and possible misunderstanding.
 Metaphor is universal: probable mutual
understanding.
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
2015/7/20
Thank you!
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