Transcript Introducing Applied Linguistics

Introducing Applied
Linguistics
Prodi Bahasa Inggris
TA Genap February 2014
1. Defining Applied Linguistics
Macro-Applied Linguistics: The study of
language and linguistics in relation to
practical problems.
Micro-Applied Linguistics: The study of
second and foreign language learning and
teaching. (Jack Richards et al)
2. Applied linguistics is an
interdisciplinary science
Linguistics Disciplines
LinguisticLD
LRD
AL
Linguistics-related
Disciplines
*sociolinguistics
*psycholinguistics
*computational
linguistics
*neurolinguistics
etc.
*phonology *syntax *semantics
*pragmatics, etc.
ERD
Education-related Disciplines
*educational theories *educational
measurment *educational technology
etc.
LLT
3. Applied Linguistics is an applied science
Theories
Autonomous
Linguistic
Theories
Description
Application
Descriptive
Linguistics
Pure Psycholinguistics
Pure Sociolinguistics
Applied
Educational Theories
Educational Statistics
..................................
New bodies of theory arising from
various branches of applied linguistics
Linguistics
An Example:
Language Testing
Applied Linguistics
Educational Theroeis
*Curriculum & Syllabus
*Teaching Materials
Linguistics
*phonology
*grammar
*Lexicology & Semantics
*Pragmatics
Psycholinguistics
*Communicative competence
*Communicative processes
*Language aptitude
*Ability & knowledge
Educational Measurment
*Test type
*Test design
*Item type
Educational Statistics
*Test of the test
*Score interpretation
*Norm
Computer Science
*Pattern recognition
*Adjustment of scores
*Automatic processing
An Overview
Policy, Needs
Objectives
The
teacher
Applied
Linguistics
The Learner:
*Age
*Motivation
*Interest
*Intelligence
*Sex
*Strategies
*Personality
etc.
Total Teaching
Operation:
*Approach
*Syllabus
*Method
*Materials
*Aids
etc
Error Analysis
Testing & Evaluation
 Policy:
Role and position of a foreign language in
general education, the entrance examination, studying
abroad, getting a job, promotion, etc.
 Needs and Objectives:
Role and position of a
foreign language in social, economic, cultural, military
development, etc.
 Approaches:
behavioral, mechanistic, cognitive,
humanistic, socio-psychological, etc.
 Syllabus:English
major, English minor, college
English, ESP, one skill, four skills, etc.. Grammatical,
situational, functional, notional, communicative,
intensive,etc.
 Materials:
Content, choice of amount, criteria, and
items, grading (grouping and sequence),etc.
 Methods: grammar-translation, aural-lingual, aural-oral,
audio-visual, counselling learning, the Silent Way,
suggestopoedia, etc.
 Aids: Software: pictures, photos, toys, tapes, disks, etc.;
Hardware: magnetic boards, overhead projectors, tape
records, video recorders, language labs, computers,
multimedia labs, etc.
3. A systems approach to applied
linguistics
A. What is meant by a system?
A system is an integral whole consisting of interrelated
and interlocking components which have their own
particular functions. In a system the members are, from
a holistic viewpoint, not significantly connected with
each other except with reference to the whole.
A
B
C
D
E
Examples of ancient philosophy entertaining the idea of
a systems approach include: Chinese traditional medicine
and the water conservancy project initiated by Li Bing;
the belief of Aristotles that the whole was larger than all
its parts put together.The changes and development of
these components are marked by what are known as
"processes".
A systems approach to foreign language learning
and teaching (FLLT) indicates that the whole process or
the learner himself can be thought as a system in which
there are a set of interrelated and interlocking variables,
each has its part to play in the whole process. There are
three important branches in the study of systems:
(1)
General systems theory-------theoretical
biology (living organism) and philosophy
(2) Systems engineering-------technology
(3) Operational research--------applied
mathematics
B. Closed vs open systems
A system is closed if no material enters or leaves
it; it is open if there is import and export and,
therefore, change of the components. Living systems
are open systems, maintaining themselves in exchange
of material with environment, and in continuous
building up and breaking down of their components.
So far physics and physical chemistry have been
concerned almost with processes in closed reaction
systems, leading to chemical equilibrium. But the cell
and organism of a living system as a whole do
not
comprise a closed system, and are therefore never in
equilibrium, but in a steady state. A steady state is a
time-independent state where the system remains constant as
a whole and in its phases, though there is a continuous flow
of the component materials.
C. Organizational environments
Open systems maintain themselves in exchange of material
with environment; the environment is the set of all objects, a
change in whose attributes affects the systems, and also of
those objects whose attributes are changed by the behavior
of the system. Therefore we can introduce a general
proposition: that a comprehensive understanding of
organizational behavior requires some knowledge of each
member of the following set, where L indicates some
potentially lawful connexion and the suffix 1 refers to the
organization and the suffix 2 to the environment
L11
L21
L12
L22
L11 here refers to processes within the organization--- the area of internal interdependencies; L12 and
L21 to exchanges between organization and
environment
and environment ---- the area of
transactional interdependencies, from either direction;
and L22 to processes through which parts of the
environment become related to each other---- the area of
interdependencies that belong within the environment
itself
Simon has demonstrated the relation between an
organism and its environment by an example of a simple
organism that has a single need----food----and is capable
of three kinds activity: resting, exploration, and food
getting. The behavior of the organism can be described as:
(a) it explores the surface at random. watching for a
food heap;
(b) when it sees one, it proceeds to it and eats (food
getting);
(c) if the total consumption of energy during the
average time required, per meal, for exploration and food
getting is less than the energy of the food consumed in the
meal, it can spend the remainder of its time in resting.
Simon has been able to show that the survival chances,
from meal to meal, of this organism depend on four
parameters: two that describe the organism and two the
environment:
H = the storage capacity of the organism
v = the range of vision of the organism
p = the richness of the environment in food
d = the richness of the environment
Q = 1 - P = ( 1 - p )^( H - v )^d^v
Q is the probability that it will not survive, and can be
taken as the probability of failure in FLLT. The
implications are that the richer the environment (exposure
to the target language), the greater the storage capacity
(perceptual powers), the wider the range of vision of the
learner, the more successful our learner will be.
p
One
Two
Three
Four
1/10000
1/10000
1/10000
1/10000
d
H
10
10
5
10
(H-v)
2
3
3
3
20
20
103
103
P
Q
0.1647 0.8353
0.817
0.183
0.714
0.286
0.99995 0.00005
D. Different kinds of systems
According to their developmental stages,
systems can be divided into three kinds:
inorganic, biological, and social systems.
Inorganic
biological
purposefulness
adaptation
social
transformation
set
relatedness
hierarchy
integrity
feedback
optimization
 Social
systems are also known as artificial systems as
distinguished from natural systems.
 Natural systems are systems that are already in existence
and composed of natural elements.
 Artificial systems can be further divided into:
(a) systems that are products of human processing
of natural elements;
(b) systems that are formed by human beings in the
society;
(c) scientific or theoretical systems that are products
of human observations of nature and society.
 To
sum up what we have discussed, let’s quote
from Grotjahn (1985):
“From the viewpoint of cybernetics and system
theory, however, interlanguages should indeed
be considered as systems--systems which can be
characterized as dynamic, non-recursive,
stochastic, non-stationary, open, and goalseeking. The interlanguage system is dynamic
(not stable) because its attributes change with
time. It is non-recursive because it involves
feedback processes. It is stochastic because at
least some of the processes follow probability
distribution. It is non-stationary because
some of the probability distributions are
dependent on the variable “time”. It is open
because it depends on external, i.e.
environmental variables such as linguistic
input. Finally, it is goal-seeking because it
tends to develop a characteristic final state.”
The Process of Analysis
?
Input
Internal
Structure
Output
External Structure
The Process of Synthesis
?
Input
Internal
Structure
Output
External Structure
F. Modelling
Simulation is a numerical technique for conducting
experiments on a digital computer, which involves
logical and mathematical relationship that interact to
describe the behavior and structure of a complex realworld system over an extended period of time. The
definition of simulation (modelling) describes systems
(for which simulation methods are appropriate) as being
complex, being subject to random fluctuations, and
having relationships that are difficult if not impossible to
analyze mathematically. By complexity we mean that
the system is large in terms of number of variables,
parameters, relationship, and events to which the system
is responsive.
Formulation
Real system
Model
Deduction
Real
Conclusion
Model
Conclusion
Modelling is an experimental method as well as a
problem solving technique, and it is resort to when the
systems under consideration cannot be analysed by direct
and formal analytical methods. It can be used to:
(1) To observe the complex interaction among the
variables in a system, and to find out if possible, which
variables play a more important role in the interaction.
(2) To observe the effects of organizational and
environmental changes on the variables of the system,
and the reaction of variables to a newly introduced
situation.
(3) To observe the effects of a newly introduced
variable on the other variables of a system, and to locate
bottleneck problems in the operation of the system.
(4) To provide information about the serial progression
of events which is decisive in the study of the stochastic
process.
(5) To provide means of instruction for the training of
such basic skills as theory formulation, statistical
analysis and decision making.
5. Applied linguistics is a process-oriented
science
The model of information processing provided by
Robert Gagne can be applied to account for the process
of FLLT:
The Informationprocessing Model
(R.M. Gagne)
E
N
V
I
R
O
N
M
E
N
T
Effectors
Executive
Control
Expectancies
Response
Generator
attention
(selective
perception)
Receptors
Sensory
Register
encodLonging
Short-term
Memory
term
Memory
*1/4 of second *10 to 20 Ss
*7 units
*meaningful
*lost
*rehearsal or *permanent
forgotten
6. Applied linguistics is an empirical
science
An important empirical approach to resolving the
problems and controversies of language teaching
methods has been to undertake experimental
comparisons. The Scherer-Wertheimer experiment
(1964) was carried out in the context of teaching German
at the University of Colorado. The Pennsylvania Project
(1970) was a large-scale research project directly
inolving the participation of many classes and teachers in
the high schools throughout the State of Pennsylvania.
The Swedish GUME Project took place in the setting of
language classes in high schools and in adult education.
Experimental research has yielded a much more
realistic understanding of language teaching and
learning. It has also provided a sobering check
on some of the claims, often extravagant ones,
that innovators and advocators of different
methods have been prone to make. A more
interesting trend of experimental research in
recent years is to focus on the classroom
situation, and to find out 搘hat goes on in the
classroom?in order to understand better what
language teaching is really like.
7. Applied Linguistics in Retrospect---A Short Chronology
1880
1882
1897
1899
1904
1917
Gouin's The Art of Teaching and Studying
Languages
Vietor's Language Must Start Afresh!
The International Phonetic Association
(IPA)
Sweet's The Practical Study of Languages
Jespersen's How to Teach a Foreign
Language
Palmer's The Scientific Study and
Teaching of Languages
1930
1936
1943
1946
1946
1948
Ogden's Basic English
Palmer & West's The Carnegie Report on
vocabulary selection
The Army Specialized Training Program
(ASTP)
English Language Teaching(Journal)
under the editorship of Hornby
Language Learning, Journal of Applied
Linguistics under the editorship of Fries
and Lado
Hornby's A Learner's Dictionary of
Current English
1953
1957
1957
1959
1961
West's General Service List of English Words
Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures
School of Applied Linguistics at the
University of Edinburgh under the
directorship of Catford, who was later
succeeded by Pit Corder
Center for Applied Linguistics under the
directorship of Ferguson
Voix et Images de France produced by
CREDIF(Centre de Recherche et d'Etude
pour la Diffusion du Francais)
1964
1964
1964
1965
1965
1966
1966
The first congress of AILA(Association
International de Linguistique Applique)
Halliday et al's Linguistic Sciences and
Language Teaching
Rivers?The Psychologist and the Foreign
Language Teacher
Mackey's Language Teaching Analysis
Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax
TESOL(Teachers of English to Speakers of
Other Languages)
Hymes' On Communicative Competence'
1973
1977
1976
1978
1980
1983
1985
Pit Corder's Introducing Applied Linguistics
The Edinburgh Course in Applied
Linguistics (4 Volumes)
Wilkin's Notional Syllabuses
Munby's Communicative Syllabus Design
Applied Linguistics(Journal)
Stern’s Fundamental Concepts of Language
Teaching
Richards et al: Longman Dictionary of
Applied Linguistics
8. A linguistic approach to applied
linguistics -- the course structure
(1) The evolution of a definition of language
A. Language is a means of communication.
 What is the medium of this means of
communication?
 Noises in the throat, scribbles on paper, scratches on
stone, wigwagging flags, smoke signals, etc. all
might "communicate something".
 What are the primary means of communication?
Written or spoken?
B. Language is a written means of communication.
 Mankind was speaking long before the dawn of
recorded history.
 Great literature was conceived and passed on
without the benefit of writing
 Many people survive without a writing system.
C. Language is a vocal means of communication
 Everything we utter is set forth in a meaningful order;
in order to have communication, we must have system.
D. Language is a vocal system of communication.
 How is the system organized?
 We must have (a) vocabulary---symbols; (b) grammar
grammatical signals.
E. Language is a system of vocal symbols and
grammatical signals used for communication.
 What is the relation between sound and meaning?
 Speakers of a language have all agreed arbitrarily
upon the relationship of utterance and concept.
F. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols and
grammatical signals used for communication.
 Language is called upon not only for communication,
but also for interaction.
G. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols
and grammatical signals used for communication,
interaction, and cultural transmission.
 Who uses this instrument for communication,
interaction and transmission?
H. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols
and grammatical signals by means of which the
members of a speech community communicate,
interact, and transmit their culture.
(2) The various aspects of language
Language is a system of Unit 2: Language is a
generative system
arbitrary
Unit 4: Language is primary
vocal, but can also be
visual
vocal
Unit 3:Language is a set of
arbitrary symbols
symbols and
Unit 5:The symbols have
conventionalized
meanings to which they
refer
grammatical signals
of which
the members of a
speech community
communicate, interact
and transmit their
culture
Unit 6:Language is used for
communication and
cultural transmission
Unit 7: Language operates in a
speech community
Unit 8:Language is unique
Unit 9:Language is universal
Unit 1
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 4
Unit 5
Unit 6
Unit 7
Unit 8
Unit 9
Applied Linguistics and its
linguistic-related disciplines
General Linguistics
Lexicology
Phonetics
Semantics
Psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics
Neurolinguistics
General Linguistics
Questions?
If not, End of Lecture