Transcript Do Engineers Have Social Responsibilities? By Dr. Mark

Do Engineers Have Social
Responsibilities?
“People enjoy what technology can do for them while often ignoring what it can do to them”
--Edward Wenk
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What does “having” social
responsibilities mean?
• It means a commitment from the engineering profession,
and, by proxy, the individual engineers who belong to the
profession, to place the public safety and interest ahead
of all other considerations and obligations (with certain
caveats to be explained later).
• It means that engineers take into account and show due
regard for the consequences of their conduct for the
well-being of others as well as for the impact of their
work on society and the citizenry.
• This requires the engineer to make determined efforts to
discover all of the relevant facts concerning the design,
development, and deployment and all of the possible
outcomes of the choices available that may positively
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and negatively affect/impact society and the citizenry
Social Responsibilities of Engineers (Some
Examples)
• Ensure the safety and well-being of the public
• Ensure that society’s funds and resources concerning
technology are well used
• Refusing to work on a particular project or for a particular
company
• Speaking out publicly against a proposed project
• Blowing the whistle on illegality or wrong-doing
• Professional Societies’ obligation to provide protection
for whistleblowers
• Individual and organizational concern about the impact
of engineering projects on society
• Contributing one’s services to worthy, non-profit groups
and projects
• Engineering schools’ commitment to educating future
engineers about their social responsibilities
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Social Responsibilities of Engineers
(Some Examples)
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Commitment of engineering professions and organizations to principles of
social responsibility
Commitment of risk assessment experts to ethical risk/safety assessments
Actively promote the ethical development and use of technology
Voluntarily assume the task of educating the public about important
consequences of various technological and scientific developments
Commitment of engineers to design and develop sustainable technologies
Provide expert advice to non-experts
Take part in democratic procedures for technology decision making and
policy management
Social activism of engineers in the public Interest
Explicit care and concern about technology’s impact on Nature and the
Environment
Abiding by the principles of sustainable development when thinking about
engineering designs
Abiding by the “precautionary principle” when thinking about engineering
designs
In engineering design, engineers have practiced social responsibility by
applying factors of safety to their designs and by building in redundancy
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Engineering Social Responsibility
• Why do engineers have the responsibility to think about
the interaction of technology and society?
• One reason: Because engineers are the ones who
create all of the technology
• Responsible moral beings are supposed to think about
the effects of their own actions and creations especially if
they impact others
• Possible response: “but engineers and scientists, like
professionals in general, are supposed to implement the
goals of their employers and clients, not decide what
those goals should be”
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Arguments that Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t)
Have Social Responsibilities
1. Engineering is not a true profession so society
should not expect that engineers have social
responsibilities like the other “true” professions
2. Engineering is a value-free enterprise that
deals only in objective facts
3. Engineers are not qualified to make ethical
judgments on behalf of society so it is unfair to
think they should or could
4. The nature of engineer-manager relations in
large organizations
–
Engineers lack decision-making autonomy and
power
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Arguments that Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t)
Have Social Responsibilities (Argument One)
1. Engineering is not a true profession and so society
shouldn’t hold the profession of engineering, or
individual engineers, to higher ethical standards as it
does other true professions such as medicine, law, and
university professors
1. Professions have social responsibilities but engineering is not a
profession like medicine and law and so it does not have the
same, higher, social responsibilities
2. Engineering does not serve a crucial social need and high ends
that is the basis of an implicit social contract
3. Engineering is not given the same privileges other professionals
so there is not a social contract that promotes engineering
social responsibility
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Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument One
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Differences between engineers and other professionals such as medicine,
law, university professors, etc.
Such professions serve crucial social needs and high ends such as Health
(Doctors), Truth and Knowledge (Professors), Social Justice (Lawyers)
– Society grants special privileges to such groups for socially recognized essential
needs
– Engineering lacks such ends, privileges, and protections
•
Engineers lack legal and quasi-legal protections to do or refrain from
performing certain actions: for example, professors (academic freedom),
journalists (sources), and clergy and psychiatrists (confidentiality)
Counterargument
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The professionalization of engineering
Engineering does serve crucial social needs
– Material well-being through technological systems and artifacts
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Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument Two
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Engineers maintain a value-free objectivity following a scientific
methodology absent of any subjectivity
To make individual engineers socially responsible is to inject a radical,
arbitrary, and precarious subjectivity based on the “whims” of individual
engineers
– "...engineering ethics is not, or should not be a medium for expressing one’’s
personal opinions about life. " "Engineers do not have the responsibility, much
less the right, to establish goals for society." (Florman, p. 95)
Counterargument
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Engineers, because they know the technology at the most intimate level,
are aware of its risks and limits as well as its benefits
Engineers could be educated to become more aware of their ethical
responsibilities and how to make ethically responsible decisions regarding
its design, development, and deployment
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Engineers Don’t (Shouldn’t/Couldn’t) Have
Social Responsibilities: Argument Three
•
The individual engineer is not qualified to make judgments as to the ethical acceptability or
unacceptability of technology
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The choices as to which technology should be designed or built can only be made on the basis of
systems of human values incapable of validation by the scientific and/or the engineering method
–
“It is not the engineer's job, in his or her daily work, to second-guess prevailing standards of safety or
pollution control, nor to challenge democratically established public policy." (Florman)
Counterargument
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Is this a subterfuge for inaction?”
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Engineers cannot escape social responsibilities for choice of action by alleging some kind of
objectivity not possessed by the layperson or lay citizenry or by claiming incompetence and/or
ignorance as to the social impact of his/her design, and the corresponding public sentiment about
it.
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Whose interests does it serve? Does it serve corporate interests at the expense of the interests of
the public when it comes to risk or harm to the citizenry?
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Is this an abdication of responsibility?
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Engineer-Manager Relations in Large
Corporations or Organizations: Argument Four
The “Received View”:
• The corporate engineer lacks the sufficient autonomy
necessary to be responsible and ethical
• The engineer is in constant conflict with management
who often ends up overriding engineering judgment
concerning engineering designs because of their
incessant pursuit of the bottom line
• Lack of professional autonomy leaves scant room for
ethical decision making (but not ethical judgment)
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Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations or
Organizations: Argument Four (cont.)
• Engineers are a captive profession in a highly
compartmentalized work environment.
• Managers choose what to do, divide work up
into small groups, and assign each engineer to a
particular one
• Communication between engineers and
managers is kept to a minimum to assure
management control
• Engineers identify options, test them, and report
the work to managers
• Managers combine these reports with business
information they alone have.
• Managers decide, engineers merely advise
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Engineer-Manager Relations in Large Corporations or
Organizations : Argument Four (cont.)
• Corporate engineers are used as “hired hands”
who develop technology with the sole purpose of
advancing the economic demands of the
corporation or client
• Engineers are not independent professionals—
They are employees
• Emerging from the canal and railway building
enterprises of the nineteenth century American
engineering is a creature of large bureaucratic
organizations—individual engineers were the
original “organization man”
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The concept of “Organization Man”
• This term was coined in the 1960s when sociological
analyses of bureaucracies were conducted
• An “organization man” is someone who represses or
suppresses his or her individual desires and values and
molds their personal behavior to conform to the
demands of the organization he or she works for; a
conformist
• Another definition is a employee of large corporations
who has adapted so completely to what is expected in
attitudes, ideas, and behaviors of the corporation so that
they lose a sense of personal identity or independence
• Someone who so fully adapts that their personal identity
and values are absorbed by organizational objectives
and values
• Someone who sacrifices his or her own individuality for
what is perceived as the good of the organization
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Engineer-Manager Relations in Large
Corporations or Organizations: Counterargument
Recent research: The Received View is False
• Instead of rigid hierarchical and
compartmentalized decision making process of
the received view
• There exists a highly fluid process depending
heavily on meetings and less formal exchange
of information across departmental boundaries
• Managers seemed to have little control over
what information would reach the engineers
• Managers are anxious to get engineers to hook
up with one another for collaboration
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Arguments/rationales for the Social
Responsibility of Engineers
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Codes of Ethics
Professionalism
Social Contract Model
Engineering Societies
Principle of Proportionate Care
Engineering as Social Experimentation
The Intrinsic Purpose of Engineering
Itself
8. The Impacts of Technology on Society
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Rationales for Social Responsibility of Engineers
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Fundamental Canons (NSPE)
1. Hold paramount the safety, health, and
welfare of the public
2. Perform services only in areas of their
competence
3. Issue public statements only in an objective
and truthful manner
4. Act for each employer or client as faithful
agents or trustees
5. Avoid deceptive acts
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Rationales for Social Responsibility of Engineers
• IEEE Code of Ethics
– We, the members of the IEEE, in recognition of the
importance of our technologies in affecting the quality
of life throughout the world, and in accepting a
personal obligation to our profession, its members
and the communities we serve, do hereby commit
ourselves to the highest ethical and professional
conduct and agree:
• 1. to accept responsibility in making decisions consistent with
the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose
promptly factors that might endanger the public or the
environment;
• 5. to improve the understanding of technology, its appropriate
application, and potential consequences
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Engineering Codes of Ethics
• ASCE Code of Ethics
– Fundamental Canon 1.Engineers shall hold paramount the
safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to
comply with the principles of sustainable development in the
performance of their professional duties.
• Software Engineering Code of Ethics
– Principle1.03. Approve software only if they have a wellfounded belief that it is safe, meets specifications, passes
appropriate tests, and does not diminish quality of life,
diminish privacy or harm the environment. The ultimate
effect of the work should be to the public good.
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IEEE Code of Ethics for Engineers
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ARTICLE IV
Engineers shall, in fulfilling their responsibilities to the
community:
Protect the safety, health and welfare of the public and
speak out against abuses in these areas affecting
the public interest;
Contribute professional advice, as appropriate, to civic,
charitable or other non-profit organizations;
Seek to extend public knowledge and appreciation of the
engineering profession and its achievements
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Professionalism
WHAT IS A PROFESSIONAL?
Originally, one who professed adherence to monastic vows of a
religious order.
*
a free act of commitment to a specific way of life
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allegiance to high moral standards
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skill, knowledge, practice of an art
WHAT IS A PROFESSIONAL?
Today, it is one who is “duly qualified” in a specific field
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special theoretical knowledge or education
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appropriate experience
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knowledge and skills vital to the well-being of a large potion of
society
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Professional organization and a code of ethic
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special social sanction
Models of Professionalism
Business Model
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professional status provides economic gain
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monopoly provides for high pay
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self-regulation avoids government regulation
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MODELS OF PROFESSIONALISM
Social Contract Model
• Professionals are guardians of the public trust
• Professions are social institutions—they are organized
by some act of society and are granted special powers in
return for socially beneficial goods and services
(Licensure)
• An implicit, unstated agreement exists between
professional and society
• Society may subsidize training of professionals
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The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
Society agrees to:
*
allow a certain autonomy
- freedom of self-regulation
- freedom to choose clients
*
social status
- respect from society, titles
*
high remuneration
- reward for services
- attract competent individuals
• Society grants the professions the autonomy to define their own
norms of behavior and action because it values their knowledge
and the discretion to use it towards some socially recognized
ends
• Society gives professions and professionals special powers not
granted to ordinary citizens to perform their socially defined
roles
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The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
Professionals agree to:
* provide a service
- for the public well-being
- promote public welfare, even at
own expense
* self-regulation
- enforce competence
- enforce ethical standards
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The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
• Clients place their trust not only in individual professionals but also
in the professional organization and they trust professionals
because the exercise of professional discretion at the individual
level is governed by rules which are prescribed and enforced by the
group
• By developing codes of professional ethics a profession can be said
to have acknowledged an organizational responsibility to evaluate
individual behavior according to group norms (BER of NSPE)
• The professions’ presumptive preference for self-regulation as an
alternative to increased public control requires that they assume
greater internal control over their affairs. This means that the
profession of engineering has a strong responsibility to make sure
that technology is produced that is good and beneficial to society,
and technological goods should be distributed fairly and justly
among all members of our society
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The Implicit Contract Between Society
and the Engineering Profession
• Self regulation places the burden of proof
collectively on the organization to ensure that
individual members are technically competent to
perform their duties according to high ethical
standards and that engineers have genuine
concern for how technology impacts society,
both negatively as well as positively
• To voluntarily claim the benefits of a profession
a member of that profession is obligated to
follow the rules and norms of that profession—If
not, they would be taking unfair advantage of a
voluntary cooperative practice
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Principle of Proportionate Care
• Principle of Due Care:
• “All things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid
contributing to significantly harming others”
• Principle of Proportionate Care
• “When one is in a position to contribute to greater harm or when one
is in a position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is
another person, one must exercise greater care to avoid so doing”
– If doctors fail to do their job with technical competency or ethical
commitment, an individual may be harmed or killed
– If engineers fail to do their job with technical competency or commitment
to ethics, dozens, hundreds, even thousands may be harmed or killed
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Principle of Proportionate Care
• To the extent that the engineers, due to their
special knowledge of technology, and the fact
that technology could be risky and dangerous,
could harm society, they must exercise due care
in the practice of their profession.
• The more engineers are in a position to harm
society, the more they should be held to a higher
ethical standard
• Society requires this in order to ensure the safe
and reliable design, development, and
deployment of technological systems and
artifacts
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Principle of Proportionate Care
• There is a direct relationship between their
ability to cause harm and the need to hold
engineers to the highest of ethical
standards
High Level of Harm
Potential to cause harm
High Level of Ethics
Level of Ethical Standard
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The Separatist Thesis:
The Special Obligations of
Professional Engineers
• A good starting point for deciding whether anyone has a
special moral obligation to others is to ask whether s/he
is especially well placed to benefit or harm them…The
outcome of scientific work can often have great impact
for good or ill on other people. Quite frequently scientists
can predict this outcome earlier and more accurately
than others. Sometimes they can even modify the
results. One could claim therefore, that engineers are in
one of those special positions which give them special
obligations”)
– Examples: Columbia Tragedy, Challenger Disaster, DC-10 Crashes,
Ford Pinto Rear End Collisions.
• Example: Physicians and nurses have a special obligation to use
their knowledge and skills to improve the health of their patients
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The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
There are two general types of definitions of engineering:
The Narrow Definition and the Broad Definition
The Narrow Definition
•
Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to
practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and
economic structures, machines, processes, and systems
•
Engineering is the art or science of making practical application of the
knowledge of pure sciences, as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.
--Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary
•
Engineering is the science and art of efficient dealing with materials and forces
... it involves the most economic design and execution ... assuring, when
properly performed, the most advantageous combination of accuracy, safety,
durability, speed, simplicity, efficiency, and economy possible for the
conditions of design and service.
•
Engineering is the practical application of science to commerce or industry
•
"Engineering design is the systematic, intelligent generation and evaluation of
specifications for artifacts whose form and function achieve stated objectives
and satisfy specified constraints."
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The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition
• The engineer is one who is claimed to possess
specialized knowledge, esp. as regards the
treating of human problems by scientific or
technical means.
• "Engineering is the professional art of applying
science to the optimum conversion of natural
resources to the benefit of man.“
• Engineering is the profession that puts power
and materials to work for the benefit of mankind
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The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition
• Engineering is the application of science to the common
purpose of life.
• Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of
power in nature for the use and convenience of man.
• Engineering is the art of organizing and directing men
and controlling the forces and materials of nature for the
benefit of the human race.
• Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of
the mathematical and natural sciences gained by study,
experience, and practice is applied with judgment to
develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and
forces of nature for the benefit of mankind.
--Engineers Council for Professional Development (1961/1979) 34
The Intrinsic Nature of Engineering
The Broad Definition
• The engineer is the key figure in the material progress of
the world. It is his engineering that makes a reality of the
potential value of science by translating scientific
knowledge into tools, resources, energy and labor to
bring them into the service of man ... To make
contributions of this kind the engineer requires the
imagination to visualize the needs of society and to
appreciate what is possible as well as the technological
and broad social…understanding to bring his vision to
reality.
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Engineering and Society
• “Engineering is a great profession. There
is a fascination of watching a figment of
the imagination emerge, through the aid of
science, to a plan on paper. Then it moves
to realization in stone or metal or energy.
Then it brings jobs home to men. Then it
elevates the standards of living and adds
to the comfort of life. That is the engineer's
high privilege….To the engineer falls the
job of clothing the bare bones of science
with life, comfort, and hope…”
--Herbert Hoover
(US mining engineer & 3ist President of the US) (1874 1964)
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Defining Engineering
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“Engineering is that profession in which knowledge of the mathematical and natural
sciences gained by study, experience, and practice is applied with judgment to
develop ways to utilize, economically, the materials and forces of nature for the
benefit of mankind.” (The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology –
ABET, 1992)
“Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to practical
ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical
structures, machines, processes, and systems.”
“Engineering is the art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use
and the convenience of people. In its modern form engineering involves people,
money, materials, machines, and energy. It is differentiated from science because it
is primarily concerned with how to direct to useful and economical ends the natural
phenomena which scientists discover and formulate into acceptable theories.
Engineering therefore requires above all the creative imagination to innovate useful
applications of natural phenomena. It seeks newer, cheaper, better means of using
natural sources of energy and materials.” (Science and Technology Encyclopedia,
McGraw Hill)
Engineering is the professional art of applying science to the optimum conversion of
the resources of nature to the uses of humankind. (Encyclopedia Britannica)
Engineering is the application of science and mathematics by which the properties of
matter and the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people (MerriamWebster Dictionary)
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Defining Engineering
• “ Scientist discovers that which exists. An
engineer creates that which never was”
» Theodore von Karman (1881-1963)
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Engineering and Ethics
• If we accept these definitions of engineering, it is
crucial to realize the centrality of ethical
concerns at the core of the engineering
enterprise
• Concern for social well being and humanity are
part of the very definition of engineering
• Assuming the intellectual rigor of these
definitions, the need of ethics in engineering id
nothing superfluous or added, but it is the
essence of the engineering profession
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Engineering and Social Values
• Today the consequences of human creativity in the areas of
engineering, technology, and science have reached measures that
only a few decades ago were unimaginable (e.g., genetic
engineering, biotechnology, nanotechnology, information
technologies, artificial intelligence)
• This capacity and development mean an enormous amount of
Power
• “Knowledge is Power” (Francis Bacon, 16??)
• With Power comes Responsibility
• Knowledge implies responsibility – the obligations of the engineer
must be commensurate with the level of his or her knowledge and
power
• With Responsibility comes Obligation and Accountability
• The fact of living in a complex, global, and intercultural world
coupled with the unquestionable technological power wielded by
governments and societies
• Makes it necessary that engineers amplify the horizon of their
technical knowledge with humanistic values and harmonize their
specialized formation and development with knowledge of the
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norms, principles, and ideals of ethics
Engineering and Social Values
• In view of the enormous power of technology
and science and the enormous potential risks
they pose, it is indispensable to stimulate and
develop the consciousness of the moral
responsibility of engineers
• There exists an urgent need to complement
technical knowledge with the development of
values, attitudes, and knowledge that facilitate
professional and ethical excellence
• It is necessary to develop social skills and team
work based in the respect for the proper values
of civic and social ethics
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Engineering Ethics
• Engineering ethics is derived from the awesome power of modern
technology
• The institutionalization of engineering ethics is a social necessity
due to the fact that the actions of engineers can have such
enormous impact on the lives of individuals, states, cultures, the
environment, and the entire planet
• An engineer is a professional who uses technologies—and the
knowledge that he possesses of diverse technical systems: objects
of all kinds, and in particular, machines, tools and systems—to
create other technical systems that satisfy human needs and wellbeing
• It is necessary to develop with rigor and depth a concept of ethics
and responsibility commensurate with our immense technological
powers in order to advance to a safer and more just world
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SONG OF THE ENGINEER
I take the vision which comes from dreams
And apply the magic of science and mathematics
Adding the heritage of my profession
And my knowledge of Nature’s materials
To create a design.
I organize the efforts and skills of my fellow workers
Employing the capital of the thrifty
And the products of many industries
And together we work toward our goal
Undaunted by hazards and obstacles.
And when we have completed our task
All can see
That the dreams and plans have materialized
For the comfort and welfare for all.
I am an Engineer.
I serve mankind
By making dreams come true.
(Unknown Author)
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Greatest Engineering
Achievements of the 20th Century
• The National Academy of Engineering published a list of
the 20th century's most notable engineering
achievements. Some of the top achievements include:
• electrification
--automobile
• airplane
--water supply and distribution
electronics
--radio and television
• Computers
--agricultural mechanization
• Spacecraft
--household appliances
• internet; telephone
--highways; imaging
• health technologies
--petroleum technologies
• high-performance materials.
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Definitions of Engineering Ethics
• “The study of the cases and moral
decisions that face individuals and
organizations in the field of engineering;
as well as the study of questions relative
to the moral ideals, character, and political
relations between persons and
corporations involved in technolgocial
activities” (Lenk, 1997)
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The Purpose of Engineering Ethics
• The subject matter of engineering ethics can
neither consist of a set of procedures or
concrete values that are applied mechanically in
problematic situations nor the inculcation into a
certain set of beliefs
• The purpose of engineering ethics is to increase
the skill of moral judgment and to develop the
moral autonomy of the engineer
• To improve the skills necessary to think critically
about the ethical aspects and consequences of
engineering design and work
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Why Engineering Ethics?
• Stressing the role of ethics in the study and
practice of engineering has at least three
important consequences:
• It stimulates the recognition of the complexity of
ethical issues in engineering
• It generates better skills at responding to and
solving moral problems
• It shows that society considers ethics as
essential to the formation of excellent and
outstanding professionals
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Objectives of Engineering Ethics
• To compliment the technical knowledge derived from engineering
education with the development of moral values and the capacity for
sound moral judgment
• To compliment the technical perspective with ethical analysis that
leads to more responsible decision making
• Develop ethical decision making in engineering that will attend to the
exigency of universal moral principles and not only to the force of
legislation, the law, or fear of punishment
• To increase knowledge about the duties, obligations and moral
responsibilities of engineers in the practice of their professional
labor
• To promote the knowledge and development of professional virtues
in order to produce excellent engineers that are committed to, and
contribute to, social progress and social justice
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Reintegrating Engineering and Philosophy
• “…Today's conflicts between the views that the
humanities hold of science and engineering and the
views science and engineering hold of the humanities
weaken the very core of our culture. Their cause is lack
of integration in today's education among subjects…A
new…[multidisciplinary model]…is needed to provide
every educated person with a basic understanding of the
endeavors and instruments that help us address our
world and shape a new morality-the humanities, in the
noblest sense of the word, to civilize, science to
understand nature, and engineering, broadly defined, to
encompass the kindred activities that modify nature.
Integration of these endeavors is urgent…No domain
can any longer be considered and learned in isolation...”
» George Bugliarello,
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Engineering
Science
Humanities
The Segregation of Academic Disciplines/Fields of Study
Natural Science
Humanities
Where should we put the academic study of Engineering on this continuum?
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Engineering as a Humanity
• Is Engineering more like Natural Science
or more like a field of studies in the
Humanities?
• If you look at the very definition of
engineering, you will see that engineering
is intimately connected to the humanities
because it is the application of scientific
theory to solve certain problems of
humanity—namely it’s need for technology
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Some Remarks on the
History of the Engineering Profession
•
•
•
•
Engineering was defined originally as the art of managing engines; in its
modern and extended sense, the art and science by which the mechanical
properties of matter are made useful to man in structures and machines
(Webster’s Abridged Dictionary)
Until the Industrial Revolution there were only two kinds of engineers. The
military engineer built such things as fortifications, catapults, and, later,
cannons. The civil engineer built bridges, harbors, aqueducts, buildings, and
other structures. During the early 19th Century in England mechanical
engineering developed as a separate field to provide manufacturing
machines and the engines to power them.
The first British professional society of civil engineers was formed in 1818;
that for mechanical engineers followed in 1847. In the United States, the
order of growth of the different branches of engineering, measured by the
date a professional society was formed, is civil engineering (1852), mining
and metallurgical engineering (1871), mechanical engineering (1880),
electrical engineering (1884), and chemical engineering (1908).
Aeronautical engineering, industrial engineering, and genetic engineering
are more modern developments.
The first schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were
the United States Military Academy (West Point) in 1817, an institution now
known as Norwich Univ. in 1819, and Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in
1825.
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Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
• The “paramountcy clause” in engineering codes of ethics obligates
engineers to “hold paramount” (i.e., above all) the health, safety, and
welfare of individuals, groups, and societies that may be impacted
by technological innovation and the implementation of technological
systems
• “The ‘paramountcy’ principle [in the engineering codes of ethics]
imposes an impossible burden of responsibility on individual
engineers.” (Baum, 1990)
• Most decisions involving complex technologies in our society cannot
be made by one individual or one individual group alone and there is
no defensible justification for engineers—individually or
collectively—to take the decision-making responsibility onto
themselves.
• The only morally justifiable procedure for making decisions in such
complex cases is for all affected parties or their delegated
representatives to be provided with all of the available information
relevant to the decision and for them to have an equitable say in the
final decision
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Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
• “To promote the health, welfare, and safety of society…”
• They are not required to promote the good but they are
morally obligated to exercise reasonable care that their
activities do not contribute to the bringing about of harm
such as death, pain, disability, loss of opportunity or loss
of overall happiness.
• The social responsibilities of engineers according to the
risk and public consent model are:
1. Recognize the right of each individual potentially affected by a
project to participate to an appropriate degree in the making of
decisions concerning the project
2. Do everything in their power to provide complete, accurate, and
understandable information to all potentially affected parties
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Limitations of Paramountcy Clause
• Engineers have an obligation to make reasonable efforts
to find out what the client or company intends to do with
their invention, research, or design, or product
• The primary social responsibility of engineers and
scientists is to avoid causing harm
• “The most meaningful question that can be asked
concerning engineering ethics is ‘What can reasonably
be done to minimize the risks associated with the work of
engineers’?”
• Critics claim that it is too much to ask of engineering to
honor the “principle of beneficence,” that is, the principle
that asks engineers to not only make sure that their
innovations do not harm society, but that their designs
and inventions actively help and benefit society
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The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson
I. “Guns for Hire”
Engineers should provide their skills to anyone irrespective of moral convictions
(within limits of law)
II. Personal and Professional Values
Engineers should refuse to work on projects they deem to conflict with their
(personal) morals
III. Risk and Public Consent
Engineers should refuse to work on projects that increase societal risk or degrade
public safety unless the public is informed and consents
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The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson
“Guns for Hire”
Engineers should provide their skills to anyone irrespective of moral convictions
(within limits of law)
PRINCIPLES
• Suggests that engineers can and
should act amorally
• It is not fair or useful to have
engineers impose their personal views
on society
PROBLEMS
• Contradicts very idea of a profession
• Assumes market and regulation will
properly filter out bad projects and
give the public what it wants or is
best for it
• The “system” bears all the
responsibilities
57
Engineers as “Guns for Hire”
• The “guns for hire” attitude is a
rationalization which allows engineering to
avoid social responsibilities
58
The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson
Personal and Professional Values
Engineers should refuse to work on projects they deem to conflict with their
(personal) morals
PRINCIPLES
• Individual conscience used to make
professional judgments
• Engineers should direct their skills
only for projects of positive value to
humanity
• Matters of conscience, and matters
of safety and welfare of society
inextricably linked
PROBLEMS
• Principle empty of content
(what does “positive” mean?)
• Fails to draw the line between
personal and professional ethics
(too much reliance on personal choices
to decide what is ethical)
• Fails to provide ethical guidelines
for engineers to follow
59
The Social and Professional Responsibilities of Engineers
by Deborah Johnson
Risk and Public Consent
Engineers should refuse to work on projects that increase societal risk or degrade
public safety unless the public is informed and consents
PRINCIPLES
PROBLEMS
• Engineers views are not imposed on
society
• Engineers can be assured the public
has consented to “acceptable risks”
• Impractical to obtain consent of
public or implement in some
situations (how to deal with nonunanimous consent; what if people
disagree?; who makes the decisions?)
• Engineers are not assigned the
responsibility to determine whether or
not adequate consent is given
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The Social and Professional
Responsibilities of Engineers
What do social responsibilities of engineers require for military research?
“Guns for Hire”
Personal and
Professional Values
Risk and
Public Consent
Military Research Questions:
(1) Is it “good” for humanity?
(2) Are those affected informed about it?
(3) The logic of secrecy?
Conclusions:
• Provides a framework for analysis (not a solution) about issues of military research
•Engineers should not abdicate their responsibilities (cannot justify : GFH view)
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•Ethical issues in military research are matters of both personal conscience and professional judgment
Do Engineers Have Social Responsibilities?
By Deborah Johnson
The Concept of Responsibility
Role Responsibility
Engineering Practice
Deducing the Social
Responsibilities of Engineers
Ordinary Morality
Comparison
To other Professions
Three Levels of
Analysis
Social Contract
1. Individual role responsibility
2. Rules of the profession
3. Highest goods and Principles
Social Responsibility Questions:
(1) Does the American engineering system assign responsibility to engineers?
(2) Should society assign special social responsibilities to engineers?
(3) If so, on what ethical foundations?
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Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers
(Understanding the logical foundations of an Engineer’s duty towards social responsibility)
I. Social Contract Theories
Society grants a profession special benefits in return for a promise of certain standards of behavior
Rights and responsibilities of individual professionals arise from social arrangements hypothetically
agreed because they are in the rational self interest of both parties
II. Theories of “Ordinary Morality”
• The “Due No Harm” Principle
• Other things being equal, it is wrong to harm others
• Other things being equal, one should exercise due care to avoid
contributing to significantly harming others
The Principle of Proportionate Care: “When one is in a position to contribute greater harms or
when one is in a position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another person, one
must exercise greater care to avoid so doing”
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Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers
I. Social Contract Theories
Engineers
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Society
Autonomy
Funding and educational opportunities
Control over licensing and entry requirements
High prestige and economic standing
(1) promise to design and produce safe and
reliable technologies
(2) promise to regulate themselves in
providing their services
Problems:
1. The rights to do engineering work is not reserved for engineers
(counterpoint): The rights only apply to “licensed” engineers
(P.E.s)—a small number or practicing engineers
2. Engineers do not exercise sufficient autonomy or power to
protect society
(counterpoint): the “profession” of engineering, in instituting
mechanisms for regulating its members, receives “contractual”
rights and therefore bears collective (professional) responsibility
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Deducing the Social Responsibilities of Engineers
II. Theories of “Ordinary Morality”
Principles:
1. Proportionate care: “When one is in a position to contribute greater harms or when one is in a
position to play a more critical part in producing harm than is another person, one must exercise
greater care to avoid so doing”
2. A direct connection between one’s power to affect a situation and one’s responsibility to
take care
3. Engineers have special expertise and engineering projects do pose potentially grave
social harms (risks)
Problems:
1. Does not apply just to engineers (managers have the power; engineers lack autonomy)
2. The concept “exercising due care” is vague (whistle blowing, other acts of dissent)
3. The focus on “harm” shifts attention from what engineering projects do: pose RISKS
4. The issue is not: “Will I contribute to significant harm?; rather it is “How much risk will
there be?” “Is the risk worth the benefit?” “What is an acceptable degree of risk?”
5. Engineer-Management relations (Ford Pinto; Challenger; DC-10): Engineers acted
responsibly; Managers acted irresponsibly)
65
Three Levels of Analysis
1. Individuals, roles, and responsibilities
2. Institutions, Rules, Practices, Corporate Culture, Professional Organizations
3. The Ultimate Ends the Profession should serve (Highest goods and Principles)
Individual actions in a role are justified by appealing to the rights and responsibilities
attached to the role (rules and practices of an institution), and we justify the system or rights
and responsibilities of the institution (professional organization) by a appealing to an
ultimate principle). Hence, all three of these levels are interrelated and should be more
meaningfully integrated
Example: Doctor refuses to assist in euthanasia (action), justified by a set of role
responsibilities such as doctor should never intentionally harm a patient (role
responsibility), justified by appeal to a system of medical practice such a Hippocratic Oath
(Rules of Profession), which is justified by an ultimate principle—Human Health
“In seeking an account of the social responsibilities or a profession or its members,
we must work at the middle level. We must seek an understanding of a profession as a set of
social arrangements which must be justified by something higher, but not completely
determined by the higher good or principle. We must also understand that such a system
might require members to do things not expected or required of non-members.”
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The Ultimate Purpose of Engineering
• Does the profession of engineering serve
a higher purpose, like the professions of
medicine (health), law (justice), professors
(education)?
• Serving a higher purpose means that it
serves a crucial social value
• This value is crucial to society because it
is deemed necessary for social existence
and social flourishment
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Do Engineers have Special Social Responsibilities?
1.
2.
Does the system of engineering in America assign special responsibilities to engineers?
Should we assign stronger, special social responsibilities to American engineers?
Answer to the first question: ambiguous.
1. Engineering Codes require social responsibility, but large corporations in which
engineers work require company loyalty and not commitment to human well-being
2. Public attitudes toward ethical engineers also ambiguous: whistle blowers not
properly protected
Answer to the second question: not yet formulated
1. Would have to determine the “ends” of engineering and then show how assigning
stronger social responsibilities to engineer would further these “ends”
2. What are the “ends” of engineering—Human well-being and Safety
3. Definitions of engineering:
A. The application of science and mathematics by which the properties of matter and
the sources of energy in nature are made useful to people in structures, machines,
products, systems, and processes (Webster’s Ninth Collegiate)
B. The application of science in order to solve human problems
C. Applying science for the benefit of humanity
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The Impacts of Technology on Society:
Engineering, Technology, and Society
• All technologies trigger side effects; many being harmful to some
groups of people (set of stakeholders)
• All technologies pose risks from accidents triggered by technical,
human factors, organizational systems, or socio-cultural factors.
Some of these risks are of an unprecedented scale and
geographical distribution
– Therefore, disaster prevention must be integrated at the first stages of
engineering design
• Some technologies trigger unintended consequences, many being
harmful to some groups of people (set of stakeholders)
• Thesis: It is part of the professional responsibility of engineers to be
aware of the ways in which technology interacts with the larger
society and its citizens, especially as this interaction involves Values
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Three Theories of the TechnologySociety Relationship
• Technological Optimism – All technology is good
(“you can’t stop progress”)
• Technological Pessimism – Luddite rejection of
the excesses of technology (Luddites were
English crafts workers in the nineteenth who
destroyed the new machines that were taking
their jobs)
• Technological Democratism – Value-Laden
Technology must be controlled democratically
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Technological Optimism
• Thesis: Technology gives rise to powerful
enabling factors which greatly enhance
human powers and helps maximize
human freedom, decreases human
disease, and creates abundant material
wealth and well-being which heightens
improved social standards
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Technological Pessimism
• Antithesis: Technological Determinism
• Technology can have a life of its own
• It exhibits an inner logic or momentum of development that makes it
autonomous and beyond human control
• Technological development takes place without a plan and without
regard to values and to the final “ends” and purposes of technology
• The influence of technology is all-pervasive
• The level of technology in any period in history determines the way
in which the majority of people can earn their living and spend the
majority of their time
• The comforts and advantages of technology are like addictions that
“hook” us
• Those who try to rebel are rendered ineffective and ultimately
destroyed
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Technological Democratism
• Synthesis: Technology is mediated, both acting
on and acted upon by society. Technology is so
powerful that philosophical thought about its
development and use is seriously needed
• Responsibility of being accountable for the
effects of technology on our lives and the ways
in which technology may involve values and
possible hidden social agendas
• Responsibility for engineers, corporations, and
society to deliberate together about how
technology can best be developed and used to
promote the social and human good
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Professional Dilemma
• On the one hand, professionals like engineers
may sometimes do things for clients/employers
with which they do not completely agree with
morally
– Lawyers – defend a client’s foreclosure of a poor
family
– Doctors – contraception; abortion
– Engineers – military; environment
• On the other hand, professionals are supposed
to be independent moral agents and not just
guns for hire
– As possessors of expert knowledge, professionals of
expert knowledge, they have a special obligation to
the public welfare
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Solution – Engineers Must Think Philosophically and
Ethically About Technology and Social Values: Five Theses
1. Technology can be used to implement
political and social values
2. Technology can change our life world. It
produces “forms of life”
3. Technology can change our relationship
to nature
4. Technology can require a certain type of
political or social organization
5. Technology can have embedded values
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