Transcript Theory & Methods

Theory & Methods
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Questionnaires are lists of questions
and are the main method used in social
surveys because they can reach large
numbers of people. A respondent can
fill in their own (self completion) or
answers can be recorded by an
interviewer (structured interview) or
posted
Theory & Methods
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Comparative data
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Data can be directly compared – in
theory
Everyone answers the same
questions –
But not everyone interprets them
the same
If it is a structured interviewer
there may be interviewer bias
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Theory & Methods
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Quantitative Data
Numerical data can be subjected
to stats analysis
Correlations can be discovered
e.g. a link between unemployment
and crime
Theory & Methods
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Operationalising concepts
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To measure things they must be in
a form which allows them to be
measured
How can we measure religious
beliefs?
We need to settle on a particular
definition
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Theory & Methods
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Coding answers
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Answers can be classified into
different categories
- like a multiple choice approach
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Theory & Methods
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Types Of Questions
Closed Questions
Where the answers are set down and
the respondent chooses one (or more)
Sometimes ranking is used
e.g. on a scale of 1-5 etc say how
important something is
‘Other’ is often added at the end if there
aren’t enough choices
Closed questions are well suited to
factual data
Theory & Methods
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Open questions
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Simply where a space is left for
the respondent to write their own
answer
This gives more freedom but is
very difficult to code answers
Open questions are seen as more
suitable for attitudes and values
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Self Completion
 Where the respondent
answers at leisure and posts
back or has it collected
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Advantages
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Inexpensive – no interviewer to pay
Large samples can be covered
Fast and efficient analysis can be made
Answers can be quantified
Postal q’res allow a greater
geographical area to be studied
No interviewer bias
Fill in at leisure
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Disadvantages
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Low response
Often well below 50% for postal q’res
Therefore not representative
Respondents might not understand the
q’s and there is no one to ask
Answers may be incomplete, illegible
or incomprehensible
Closed q’s can limit what respondents
want to say
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
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Structured Interviews
Here the interviewer goes through
the questions and records
responses
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Advantages
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Response rate is good
Interviewers can help to explain
things
This can result in more
information
Respondents who can’t read or
write can be included
Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires
Disadvantages
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More expensive – training and
paying interviewers
Cost increases if the sample is
spread over a large area
Interviewer bias can affect
responses
Pilot Studies
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These are a small scale study carried
out before the main study to test the
questions, the responses, train
interviewers etc. Thus any problems
can be ironed out at this stage before
committing a lot of money to the
project.
Pilot studies help to improve clarity by
removing ambiguous questions
However, despite careful preparation
problems can occur.
Interpreting answers
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What do the answers mean?
How can you tell if they are true?
Consequently results may not be as
reliable as they seem
Impression management may play a
part – especially if they want to be seen
in a certain light
Different meanings can be attached to
the same question
Consequently researchers have to
know as much about the people under
study as they can
Interpreting answers
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Theoretical issues can affect choice of
methods. Positivists tend to favour
quantitative data because this enables
generalisations from a lot of data. This
helps to make causal relationships
between factors…e.g a link between
unemployment and crime.
Interpretivists are more concerned with
the meanings attached to situations
and therefore favour more qualitative
data which gives an in-depth (and they
see as more valid) understanding
Structured interviews
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Simply questionnaires read out by
an interviewer
The same q’s are read to everyone
in the same order
Semi-structured interviews
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The questions are in order but the
interviewer has the right to ask the
respondent to elaborate on
answers
Unstructured interviews
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These are more like a
conversation
Rather than set questions there
are a list of topics to cover
Q’s are open and the respondent
has space to answer as fully as
they want
Group interviews
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The interviewer usually meets 8-10
people at one go
Focus groups are a type of group
interview where the group
discusses various pre-set issues
Structured interviews - advantages
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Many are the same as
questionnaires
Good for
:facts
:Comparable data
:quantitative data
less interviewer bias than ones
below
Structured interviews - disadvantages
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Limit answers
Can’t elaborate
Semi-Structured interviews - advantages
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Shares ads of structured
interviews
Plus interviewer can probe for
more info
Adds depth to interview
Semi-Structured interviews -disadvantages
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Loss of standardisation &
comparability
Probes make each interview
slightly different
More chance of interviewer bias
than above
Group interviews - advantages
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Focus groups are becoming more
popular
Can produce rich qualitative data
Group interviews - disadvantages
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Individuals can be influenced by
the group
Individuals may feel that they
haven’t had a chance to give their
own view
Unstructured Interviews- advantages
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Sensitive issues can be researched
Interviewee is put at ease
Interviewee can open up more
Not restricted to pre set answers
Answers can be developed further
Interviewer can ask further
questions
Unstructured Interviews- advantages
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Gives rich indepth data
Seen as more valid
Good for opinions, values and
attitudes
Skilled interviewers can help
explain and draw out more info than
other types of interview
Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages
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Interviewer bias is more of a
problem
Age, gender, ethnicity etc of
interviewer may affect reponses
Social desirability – interviewees
want to present themselves in a
certain way
Truth – some tell lies intentionally
Unstructured Interviews- disadvantages
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Some genuinely forget details
Validity can be questioned
Comparability is difficult with the
qualitative data produced
Difficult to code and quantify data
Difficult to see correlations
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When Conducting interviews the
standard advice is to be non-directive i.e
do not lead the respondent.
However, Becker adopted a more
aggressive approach when interviewing
Chicago teachers and found as a result
the answers given were more frank (1971
study of racism in schools)
Participant observation
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Participant is when the researcher
joins the group he/she is studying.
This can be overt (i.e. the
participants know) or covert (they
don’t!)
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Participant Observation- Gaining Entry
Getting in and staying in can be difficult
– particularly with covert observation
See Humphreys – Tearoom trade
Patrick – Glasgow gangs
Even overt observation can cause
resentment
Observers are seen as nosey parkers
e.g Okley took a long time to be
accepted by traveller-gypsies she
studied in 1984
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Participant Observation- Conducting Research
Observers need to fit in and be as
inconspicuous as possible
Watching and listening are crucial but
sometimes q’s must be asked – but
carefully
Some observers have key informants
Whyte had Doc
Patrick had Tim
Participant Observation- Conducting Research
This helped them to be accepted – but
affected how their informants viewed the
group
 Recording findings can be difficult in the
field
 Marsh made notes on scraps of paper in
toilets and shoved them down his jeans
 Many researchers have to rely on
memory and write up diaries at the end
of the day
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Participant Observation- Advantages
Validity – people are observed in their
natural settings
With covert obs they act naturally
Insight – is given into worlds otherwise
closed
Things are witnessed which could never
be unearthed by interviews or
questionnaires
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Participant Observation- Advantages
Things are seen through the eyes of the
participants
Sometimes it is the only practical
method – particularly with crime
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Participant Observation- Disadvantages
Time and money – these can be a lot as
many researchers spend years in the
field
Personal cost – stress and danger in
some cases –e.g Patrick
Loss of objectivity – researcher can
become too involved – ‘going native’
Sometimes researchers see the group
on a negative light
Non- Participant Observation
This is where an
individual observes
without taking part. E.g.
observing children
playing in the
playground from a
classroom window.
Non- Participant ObservationCompared to PO Non PO
has a number of
advantages and
disadvantages
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Non-Participant Observation- Advantages
Observer less likely to influence group
Researchers can use more aids for
recording info as it is open
Non-Participant Observation- Disadvantages
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Presence of researcher can affect group
The group may not act naturally
Researcher can’t ask further q’s etc
Therefore can’t discover the meanings
attached to events
Researcher’s are more likely to impose
their own subjective interpretations on
events they witness