Transcript 形态学

English Linguistics: An Introduction
Chapter 4 Morphology
Chapter 4 Morphology
0. Warm-up Questions
1. Definition of Word
2. Classification of Words
3. Morpheme
4. Morphology
5. Lexical Change
0. Warm-up Questions
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In what ways can we classify words?
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What are ways of word formation?
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Do you think words are simply a sequence of letters?
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How do you account for the variation of an affix, e.g.,
plurality –s/-es?
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Have you ever heard of bound roots?
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How does the vocabulary of a language change?
1. Definition of Word
1.1 Tentative Definitions
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Word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can
occur on its own in speech or writing, or simply “the
minimum free form”.
Word is a unit of expression that can be intuitively
recognized by Native Speakers.
1.2 Three Senses of Word
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By now, we have learned more than 5000 words.
Write a composition of at least 150 words.
Hi sometimes is more a sentence than a word.
1. Definition of Word
1.2 Three Senses of Word
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A physically definable unit: through spaces in writing
and pauses in speech
It ∩ is ∩ wonderful. /it ∩ iz ∩ ′wΛndәfәl/
A lexeme: the smallest unit in the meaning system of a
language that can be distinguished from other similar
units.
WRITE: write, writes, wrote, writing, written
A grammatical unit: a rank between morpheme and
phrase or word group in a grammatical hierarchy.
2. Classification of Words
2.1 Function (formal similarities, parts of speech)
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Traditionally, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction, interjection, and article
New categories: particles, auxiliaries, pro-forms,
determiners
2.2 Meaning: grammatical / lexical
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Function (grammatical) words are conj. prep. art.
Content (lexical) words are n. V. A. Adv. etc.
2. Classification of Words
2.3 Membership: open class and closed class
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Grammatical words are closed-class;
Lexical words are open-class.
2.4 Inflection: variable and invariable
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Words like sit, fat, seat are variable because they may
have different grammatical forms (sits, sitting, sat,
fatter, fattest, and seats),
Words like seldom, hello, in are invariable in form.
3. Morpheme
3.1 Definition
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the smallest/minimal meaningful unit in a language.
e.g. chairman=chair+man, books=book+s,
wrote=write+ed
3.2 Types of Morphemes
Capacity of occurring alone: free and bound
E.g. In the word speaker, speak is a free morpheme while
-er is bound.
 Part in a word: root, affix and stem
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3. Morpheme
3.2 Types of Morphemes
Part in a word: root, affix and stem
 A root is the basic part of a (derivational) word, which
may occur on its own.
E.g. nation is the root of the words national, international.
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A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes
to which an inflectional affix can be added. A stem is
the part of a word that is common to all its inflected
variants.
3. Morpheme
3.2 Types of Morphemes
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Affixes are used to add to another morpheme (root or
stem). They are generally classified into prefix, suffix
and infix according to their position in relation to their
roots or stems, or into inflectional and derivational
affixes according to whether the addition will result in
new lexemes.
Prefix: informal, unhappy, disable, encourage (der.)
Suffix: difficulty, shorten (der.), shorter, says (infl.)
Infix: feet, whatsoever, speedometer, picnicked
4. Morphology
4.1 Definition
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Morphology studies the internal structure of words,
and the rules of word formation.
There are two fields morphology concerns: inflection
and word formation.
4.2 Infection
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Definition: the process of adding an (inflectional) affix
to a word or changing it in some other way according to
the rules of the grammar of a language.
Variables: tense, num., person, finiteness, case, aspect
4. Morphology
4.3 Word Formation: compound and derivation
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Compound (free morpheme + free morpheme)
e.g. cutthroat, Man-eating, washing machine
Noun, verb, adjective, preposition compound
Endocentric, eccentric compound
As a single word, With a hyphen, With ordinary space
Derivation (usu. free morpheme + affixes)
e.g. nat-ion-al, fool-ish, work-er, dis-card, re-ceive
5 Lexical Change
5.1 Lexical Change Proper
Invention (also called coinage) : Kodak, Coke, nylon
 Blending: two words are blended by joining the initial
part of the first word and the final or initial part of the
second.
e.g. smog (smoke+fog), modem (modulator+demodulator)
 Abbreviation (also called clipping):
e.g. ad (advertisement), plane (aeroplane), flu (influenza)
 Acronym: made up from the first letters of the name of
an organization or scientific terms.
e.g. WTO, UNESCO, Aids, radar
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5 Lexical Change
5.1 Lexical Change Proper
Back-formation: where a shorter word is derived by
deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already
in the language.
e.g. edit (editor), lase (laser), peddle (peddler), hawk
(hawker)
 Analogical creation: this can account for the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the
conjugation of some English verbs.
e.g. worked (wrought), slayed (slew), beseeched
(besought)
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5 Lexical Change
5.1 Lexical Change Proper
Borrowing:
 Loanword: form/meaning borrowed with little change
e.g. (French) au pair, encore, (Italian) al fresco,
 Loanblend: form partly borrowed, meaning fully
e.g. (Spanish) coconut, (Chinese) China-town
 Loanshift: meaning borrowed, form native
e.g. artificial satellite (Russian sputnik)
 Loan translation: morphemes translated
e.g. almighty (Latin omnipotens)
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5 Lexical Change
5.2 Phonological Change (pronunciation)
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Shift: e.g. u:au [mouse (mus), house (hus), out (ut)]
Loss: night (niht), laboratory
Addition: rapscallion
Metathesis (alteration in sequence): ask (ax), bird (brid)
Assimilation: impolite, illegal, irrevocable
5.3 Morphological Change (inflection)
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3rd person sing.: does (doeth), goes (goeth), has (hath)
2nd person singular: do(e)st, playest, hearest, speakest
Plural forms of nouns: seeds (seedes), ways (wayes)
5 Lexical Change
5.4 Syntactical Change (syntax)
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Singular comparative: gladder (more gladder)
Negation: He did not see you. (He saw you not)
5.5 Semantic Change (meaning)
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Broadening: e.g. bird (young bird, any kind of bird),
Narrowing: e.g. hound (dog, a special kind of dog),
Meaning shift: as a result of its metaphorical usage
e.g. silly (happy  naive  foolish)
Class shift: zero-derivation or conversion
eg. to plan (n.), to engineer (n.), to hog (n.)