Transcript Document

Лексикология как наука о словарном составе
языка. Цели и задачи курса. Слово как
основная единица лексической системы.
Основные способы номинации в языке.
 Комплексная цель: охарактеризовать предмет
изучения лексикологии, ее теоретическое и
практическое значение, взаимосвязь с другими
дисциплинами, ознакомить с такими понятиями, как
синхрония и диахрония в лексикологии,
парадигматический и синтагматический подходы,
представить теоретические основы изучения
словарного состава языка, изложить основные
проблемы курса лексикологии современного
английского языка. Рассмотреть основные
проблемы теории слова: 1) определение слова; 2)
мотивированность слова; 3) отличия слова от
морфемы и от словосочетания; 4) связь между
словами и объектами реальной действительности.
Lexicology as a Science. A
General Characteristic of the
English Vocabulary.
• What is lexicology? What is language?
• Describe some general problems of the theory of the word:
• definition of a word;
• identity and isolation of words;
• connections between objects of reality and words;
• motivation of words.
• Describe the problem of the diachronic and synchronic approaches in
vocabulary system.
• Describe the notion of lexical system. Describe the theory of opposition.
• Describe the paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships of words in Modern
English.
Word
learning
LEXICOLOGY
general special contrastive
historical descriptive
1965 DIDRO and LAMBERT
LANGUAGE
• Nominative
• Communicative
• cognitive
•
•
•
•
Objective
Social
Historical
As old as our
consciousness
Theoretical basis
Dialectical materialism
Lenin’s theory of reflection
Reflection is the general property of matter
Reflection is selective
Consciousness
• The highest form of reflection of objective
reality
• Related to objective reality consciousness
represents an ideal image of objects
constituting this reality
Two Approaches to Language
Study
the synchronic (or descriptive) and the diachronic (or
historical) approach
the Swiss philologist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 — 1913)
 The term “synchronic” is
composed of two Greek
morphemes syn meaning
“together, with” and chronos
which denotes “time”.
 The synchronic approach is
concerned with the vocabulary
of a language as it exists at a
given period of time, e.g. at
the present time.
 The term “diachronic” is
composed of the Greek
morphemes dia meaning
“through” and chronos
meaning “time”.
 the diachronic approach in
terms of special lexicology
deals with the changes and
the development of
vocabulary in the course of
time.
Some General Problems of the
Theory of the Word
 The term word denotes the basic unit of a given language. It is
simultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit. In
linguistic literature we find many different definitions of a word.
 1) the problem of defining the word;
 2) the connection between words and objects of reality;
 3) the motivation of a word since every object of reality possesses a lot
of features, but only the most important and characteristic of them may
become the representative of the object;
 4) the problem of isolation of a word, for the borderline between various
linguistic units is not always clear; words of different structural types are
characterized by inseparability which finds its expression in graphic,
morphological and semantic integrity;
 5) the problem of identity of word as the word exists in the language in a
system of its grammatical forms (morphological and syntactical).
• The word is a sort of focus for the
problems of phonology, lexicology,
morphology, syntax and also for some
other sciences that have to deal with
language and speech, such as philosophy
and psychology.
• There were many attempts to define the
word, but all of them are criticized for
being incomplete.
 H. Sweet defined the word as "the
minimum sentence" (syntactic
approach).
 E. Sapir takes into consideration
the syntactic and semantic
 Any definition of the
He defines the word as
word is conditioned by aspects.
"one of the smallest completely
bits of isolated 'meaning'
the aims and interests satisfying
into which the sentence resolves
of its author.
itself”.
linguist A. Meillet combines
 Linguists have tried to  French
the semantic, phonological and
grammatical criteria and gives a
define the word
definition which underlies many
syntactiсally,
definitions suggested both abroad
and in our country.
semantically,
 "A word is defined by association
phonologically and by of a given meaning with a given
group of sounds susceptible of a
combining various
given grammatical employment".
approaches.
INDIVISIBILITY
• a lion and alive
• A lion is a word group
and we can insert
other words between
the article a and the
word
• lion: a dead lion, a
beautiful lion.
• Alive is a word, it is
indivisible.
The word is a dialectical unity
of form and content
The system showing a word in all
its word-forms is called its
paradigm.
INTRALINGUISTIC RELATIONS
OF WORDS
 Syntagmatic
 He got a letter ('to
receive');
 He got tired ('to become');
 syntagmatic relations are
linear (simultaneous)
relationships between
words.
 Paradigmatic
 the synonymic set: to
obtain, to receive, to gain,
to acquire,
 Paradigmatic relations
are the relationships that
a linguistic unit has with
units by which it may be
replaced
 paradigmatic relations are
associative (nonsimultaneous)
relationships between
words.
MOTIVATION
• The term motivation is used to denote the
relationship existing between the
morphemic or phonemic and structural
pattern of the word on the one hand, and
its meaning on the other
• There are three main types of motivation:
• phonetical motivation;
• morphological motivation;
• semantic motivation.
MOTIVATION
 The phonetical motivation implies a direct
connection between the phonetic structure of the
word and its meaning.
 cuckoo (cf. in Russian кукушка)
 There is a certain similarity between the soundform of the word and the sounds the bird produces.
 The morphological motivation implies a direct
connection between the lexical meaning of the
component morphemes, the pattern of their
arrangement and the meaning of the word.
 to rethink - the idea of “thinking again”
 The semantic motivation implies a direct
connection between the central and marginal
meanings of the word.
 eyewash has two meanings:
 1) a lotion for the eyes (примочка для глаз);
 2) something said or done to deceive a person so
that he thinks what he sees is good though in fact it
is not (cf. in Russian очковтирательство)
 Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence
of direct and figurative meanings within the
semantic structure of the word.
Лексическое значение и
семантическая структура
английских слов.
 Комплексная цель: дать общее представление о
природе значения слов, определение
семасиологии, раскрыть основные типы
лексических значений слова и принципы их
классификации, взаимосвязь между значением
слова и его сочетаемостью, значением и
употреблением. Охарактеризовать понятие
полисемия, ее роль в языке и причины этого
явления, смысловая структура многозначного
слова, историческая изменчивость смысловой
структуры слова и ее причины, основные типы
семантических изменений слов.
Semasiology
 The branch of lexicology which deals not with
every kind of linguistic meaning but with
lexical meaning only.
 Word-meaning is not homogeneous. It is
made up of various components. These
components are described as types of
meaning.
 The two main types of meaning are the
grammatical meaning and the lexical
meaning.
The grammatical meaning
• It is an expression in speech of
relationship between words
• the tense meaning in the word-forms of
the verbs: asked, thought, walked;
• the case meaning in the word-forms of
various nouns: girl's, boy's, night's;
• the meaning of plurality which is found in
the word-forms of nouns: joys, tables,
places.
LEXICAL MEANING
• the realization of the notion by means of
definite language system.
• The word-forms go, goes, went, going,
gone possess different grammatical
meanings of tense, person, number, but in
each form they have one and the same
semantic component denoting 'the process
of movement'.
The denotational aspect of lexical meaning is the
part of lexical meaning which establishes
correlation between the name and the object,
phenomenon, process or characteristic feature of
concrete reality (or thought as such), which is
denoted by the given word.
• The term
• booklet is 'a small thin
“denotational” is
book that gives
derived from the
information about
English word to
something'.
denote which means
'be a sign of, indicate,
stand as a name or
symbol for'.
THE CONNOTATIONAL
ASPECT
 the part of meaning which
reflects the attitude of the
speaker towards what he
speaks about.
 Connotation includes:
 the emotive charge, e.g.
daddy as compared to father,
 evaluation, which may be
positive or negative, e. g. clique
(a small group of people who
seem unfriendly to other
people) as compared to group
(a set of people);
 intensity (or expressiveness),
e.g. adore as compared to love;
 imagery, e.g. to wade — to
walk with an effort (through
mud, water or anything that
makes progress difficult). The
figurative use of the word gives
rise to another meaning which
is based on the same image as
the first — to wade through a
book.
The pragmatic aspect of lexical
meaning is the part of meaning,
that conveys information on the
situation
of
communication
 Three main types of the
 1) information on the
“time and space”
relationship of the
participants.
 2) information on the
participants and the given
language
community.
 information on the tenor of
discourse.
 information on the register
of communication
situations of communication
are usually singled out:
formal, neutral and informal
 the pragmatic aspect of
meaning refers words like
cordial, fraternal, anticipate,
aid, sanguinary, celestial to
the formal register while
units like cut it out, to be
kidding, hi, stuff 'are to be
used in the informal register.
 .
CAUSES OF SEMANTIC
CHANGE
 extra-linguistic
 by extra-linguistic causes
various changes in the life
of the speech community
are meant, i. e. changes
in economic and social
structure, changes in
scientific concepts.
 hlaford. Originally the
word meant 'breadkeeper' («хранитель
хлеба»), and later on
'master, ruler'
(«повелитель, лорд»).
 linguistic.
 factors acting within the
language system
NATURE OF SEMANTIC
CHANGE
 There are two kinds of
association involved in
various semantic changes:
 similarity of meanings;
 contiguity of meanings.
 Similarity of meanings or
metaphor may be described
as the semantic process of
associating two referents,
one of which in some way
resembles the other.
 hands of the clock {watch
 Contiguity of meanings or
metonymy may be
described as the semantic
process of associating two
referents one of which
makes part of the other or is
closely connected with it.
 mother tongue
RESTRICTION OR EXTENSION
OF MEANING
 Restriction of
meaning can be
illustrated by the
semantic development
of the word hound
which used to denote
“dog of any breed” but
now denotes only “a
dog used in the
chase”.
 If the word with the
extended meaning
passes from the
specialized vocabulary
into common use, the
result of the semantic
change is described
as the generalization
of meaning.
Amelioration of meaning
Deterioration (or the pejorative
development) of meaning
• the improvement of
the connotational
component of
meaning.
• the acquisition by the
word of some
derogatory emotive
charge
Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an
exceptional importance for the description of a
language system and for the solution of practical
tasks connected with an adequate understanding
of the meaning of a word and its use.
A word may have several meanings. Then it is called
a polysemantic word.
Words having only one meaning are called
monosemantic.
Of special importance is the fact that polysemy
exists only in language, not in speech.
The meaning of a word in speech is contextual.