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English Lexicology (III) Contents 8. Word Meaning 9. Sense Relations To be continued English lexicology (III) 2 Chapter 8 Word Meaning 8.1 Types of Word Meaning 8.2 Grammatical Meaning 8.3 Lexical meaning 8.4 Conceptual meaning 8.5 Associative meaning 8.1 Types of Word Meaning Word Meaning Grammatical Meaning Lexical Meaning Conceptual Meaning Associative Meaning Connotative meaning Stylistic meaning Affective meaning Collocative meaning English lexicology (III) 4 8.2 Grammatical Meaning Grammatical meaning(语法意义)refers to that part of meaning of the word which indicates grammatical concept or relationships such as the word class, singular and plural forms of nouns, tense meaning of verbs and their inflectional forms (forget, forgets, forgot, forgotten, forgetting). English lexicology (III) 5 8.3 Lexical meaning Lexical meaning(词汇意义) is the meaning of an isolated word in a dictionary. This component of meaning is identical in all the forms of the word. E.g. ‘go, goes, went, gone, going’ possess different grammatical meaning. But they have the same lexical meaning expressing the process of movement. Lexical meaning itself has two components: conceptual meaning and associative meaning. English lexicology (III) 6 8.4 Conceptual meaning Conceptual meaning(概念意义) (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Sun: a heavenly body which gives off light, heat,and energy Mother: a female parent English lexicology (III) 7 8.5 Associative meaning Associate meaning(关联意义) is the secondary meaning supplemented to the conceptual meaning. It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is liable to the influence of such factors as culture, experience, religion, geographical region, class background, education,etc. Associative meaning comprises four types: connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, and collocative meaning. English lexicology (III) 8 8.5 Associative meaning Connotative meaning (内涵意义) In contrast to denotative meaning, connotative meaning refers to the overtones or associations which a word suggests or implies. Mother (a female parent) is often associated with ‘love’, ‘care’, ‘tenderness’, ‘forgiving’, etc. Home (a dwelling place) may suggest ‘family, warmth, safety, love, convenience’, etc. ‘East or west, home is best’. Statesman implies ‘loyalty, devotion to public welfare’; politician implies ‘deceit, power-drunk, bragging, villainy’. English lexicology (III) 9 8.5 Associative meaning Connotative meaning For people with different cultural backgrounds, a word might evoke different associations. China magpie Good luck, good will owl red Britain wordiness bad luck, malignance composure, wisdom happiness, good luck, unfavoured state success ‘red-light district’ ‘red flags’ ‘in the red” English lexicology (III) 10 8.5 Associative meaning Stylistic meaning(文体意义) Words may have stylistic features, which make them appropriate for different contexts. This stylistic difference is especially true of synonyms. It is observed that there are few words which have both the same conceptual meaning and stylistic meaning. English lexicology (III) 11 8.5 Associative meaning Stylistic meaning Degrees of formality Formal Neutral/Common Informal/ Colloquial Examples male parent, father, daddy residence, home, pad English lexicology (III) 12 8.5 Associative meaning Stylistic meaning bodily----corporal brotherly---fraternal tooth----dental blood----sanguinary hereby, thereby, therefore, however, moreover, furthermore English lexicology (III) 13 8.5 Associative meaning Affective meaning(情感意义) Affective meaning indicates the speaker’s attitude towards the person or thing in question. Words that have emotive values may fall into two categories: Appreciative or commendatory(褒义): words of positive overtones used to show appreciation or approval. Pejorative or derogatory(贬义): words of negative connotations imply disapproval, contempt or criticism. English lexicology (III) 14 8.5 Associative meaning Affective meaning Appreciative love, cherish, prize, treasure, admire, worship, charm, fascinate, attract Pejorative hate, detest, loathe, abominate, vicious, good-for-nothing English lexicology (III) 15 8.5 Associative meaning Affective meaning This affective difference is especially true of synonyms. Appreciative gathering Neutral crowd Pejorative mob senior citizen slender,slim unique old person thin unusual fossil skinny bizarre English lexicology (III) 16 8.5 Associative meaning Collocative meaning(搭配意义) Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires in its collocation. In other words, it is that part of the word meaning suggested by the words before or after the word in discussion. English lexicology (III) 17 8.5 Associative meaning Collocative meaning ‘A bit or a little’ collocates with words of negative connotations: drunk, jealous, gloomy, tired, worried… ‘Highly’ collocates with words of positive connotations: important, significant, intelligent, sensitive… English lexicology (III) 18 8.5 Associative meaning Collocative meaning wide awake, fully awake, sound asleep, far apart (‘Very’ is inappropriate here) tremble with fear, quiver with excitement English lexicology (III) 19 Chapter 9 Sense Relations 9.1 Sense Relations 9.2 Hyponymy 9.3 Synonymy 9.4 Antonymy 9.5 Homonymy 9.1 Sense Relations What are sense relations(语义关系)? Words are arbitrary symbols and are independent identities so far as heir outer facet--spelling and pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all words are related in one way or another, hence sense relations. In light of sense relations, words can be classified semantically. English lexicology (III) 21 9.1 Sense Relations Types of sense relations Hyponymy(上下义关系)---semantic inclusion Synonymy(同义关系)---semantic similarity Antonymy(反义关系)---semantic opposition Homonymy(同形或同音异义关系) English lexicology (III) 22 9.2 Hyponymy The definition of hyponymy Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion. It refers to the relationship which obtains between the genus (general lexical item)and the species(specific lexical items). The general lexical item is called the superordinate(上义词). The specific words are known as hyponyms(下义词). English lexicology (III) 23 9.2 Hyponymy literature prose novel fiction drama novelette English lexicology (III) poetry short story 24 9.2 Hyponymy sports swimming ball games weight-lifting wrestling athletics running race running long-distance race gymnastics sprinting English lexicology (III) boxing hurdle race relay 25 9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory(语义场理论) The vocabulary of a language is not simply a listing of independent items, but is organized into areas or fields, the members of which are joined together by some common semantic component. The whole vocabulary can be divided up into fields. Words in each field are semantically related and define one another. Vocabulary is seen as ‘ an integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense’. ------Jost Trier (a German linguist) English lexicology (III) 26 9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory Most languages share same semantic fields. Time Space Age Kinship Food Color Emotion ……… English lexicology (III) 27 9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory The semantic field of the same concept may not have the same members in different languages, thus lexical gaps(词汇空缺) occur. English lexicology (III) 28 9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory The semantic field of kinship Members in English: 13----father, mother, son, daughter, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, cousin, husband, wife. Members in Chinese: ………. The semantic field of food hot dog, sandwich, hamburger 豆腐, 馒头 English lexicology (III) 29 9.2 Hyponymy The semantic field theory emotion joy hate fear English lexicology (III) grief love 30 9.2 Hyponymy Implications of semantic field for vocabulary learning character/ virtue easy-going, aggressive, arrogant, self-conceited, modest,considerate, sympathetic, extrovert, introvert, amicable, Ambitious, honest, loyal, obedient, strong-willed, Iron-willed, trustworthy, obstinate, stubborn, unyielding, confident English lexicology (III) 31 9.3 Synonymy Types of synonyms Absolute or perfect synonyms: words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, I.e. both in grammatical and lexical meaning, including conceptual and associative meaning. Such synonyms are rare in natural languages. compounding and composition; word building and word-formation; malnutrition and undernourishment English lexicology (III) 32 9.3 Synonymy Types of synonyms Relative or partial synonyms: words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degree of a given quality. It is this type of synonyms we shall deal with here. English lexicology (III) 33 9.3 Synonymy Sources of synonyms Borrowing Native room foe help leave bodily Borrowed chamber enemy aid depart corporal English lexicology (III) 34 9.3 Synonymy Sources of synonyms Borrowing Native French Latin time age epoch belly stomach abdomen fire flame conflagration ask question interrogate English lexicology (III) 35 9.3 Synonymy Sources of synonyms Dialects lift tube petrol call box charm and regional English elevator subway gasoline telephone booth glamour (ScotE) English lexicology (III) 36 9.3 Synonymy Sources of synonyms Figurative and euphemistic of words occupation walk of life dreamer star-gazer drunk elevated lie distort the fact English lexicology (III) 37 9.3 Synonymy Sources of synonyms Coincidence pick up give up go on with put off win hesitate with idiomatic expressions choose abandon continue postpone gain the upper hand be in two minds English lexicology (III) 38 9.3 Synonymy Semantically synonymous field(同义语义场) Base on semantic similarity, synonyms are usually arranged into synonymic groups or sets. Within this groups there is the most general term known as “synonymic dominant”(主导同义词). The synonymic dominant is the common denotational component that brings two or more words together into a synonymic group(同义词 群), which can be called a semantically synonymous field. English lexicology (III) 39 9.3 Synonymy Semantically synonymous field synonymic synonymic group dominant Leave depart, quit, retire, withdraw, exit… Look stare, gaze, eye, peep, glance… Picture painting, photo, drawing… English lexicology (III) 40 9.3 Synonymy Implications of Semantically synonymous field General------specific Say/speak: murmur, scream, retort, argue, protest, claim, state, declare Monotony----vividness We have but one aim and one single, irrevocable purpose. We are resolved to destroy Hitler and every vestige of the Nazi regime. From this nothing will turn us, nothing. We will never parley, we will never negotiate with Hitler or any of his gangs. -------Winston Churchill Barbie doll’s fashion: fashions, costumes, outfits, apparel, dress….. English lexicology (III) 41 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in denotation ------look: stare, gaze, eye, peep, glance ------laugh: chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, snicker/snigger, titter ------extend, increase, expand -------make one’s way: thread one’s way, dig one’s way, break one’s way, push one’s way, shoulder one’s way, elbow one’s way, worm one’s way English lexicology (III) 42 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in denotation -----let, allow, permit -----want, wish, desire -----rich, wealthy -----big, large, huge English lexicology (III) 43 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in denotation ------chilly, frigid, icy, cold, frosty, cool Cool-----chilly-----cold-----frosty-----frigid-----icy English lexicology (III) 44 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in connotation Differ in emotional coloring Differ in stylistic coloring English lexicology (III) 45 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in collocation -----empty (box, street, room), vacant (seat, chair, apartment), blank (check, a blank sheet of paper) ------a large (not big) amount/number/quantity of… ------great courage/confidence/wisdom ------make efforts, take measures English lexicology (III) 46 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in collocation -----accuse….of, charge…with, rebuke…for, reproach…with/for -----a lump of sugar, a sheet of paper, a slice of meat/bread, a cake of soap, a chunk of wood -----a flock of sheep/goats/birds, a herb of cows/elephants/zebras/antelopes, a school of fish/whales/dolphins, a swarm of ants/bees/wasps/locusts, a stable of horses, a pride of lions English lexicology (III) 47 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms Difference in distribution Pre-modifier VS post-modifier ---He is the greatest living novelist in England. ---He is the greatest novelist alive in England. ---Don’t disturb the sleeping old man. ---Don’t disturb the old man asleep. English lexicology (III) 48 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms abolish, cancel, extinguish, eliminate losing team was eliminated from further competition. Firefighters extinguished a big fire. cancelled because of The meeting has been the flu. abolished the tax on alcohol. The government The English lexicology (III) 49 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms abstract, outline, summary outline of ideas she wanted to made an present in her talk. abstract of his book. I have read the The chemistry book had a summary at the end of each chapter. She English lexicology (III) 50 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms absurd, ridiculous, silly is ridiculous to judge a foreign culture only by its food. absurd There was an idea that the earth was flat and motionless. silly You were very to trust him. It English lexicology (III) 51 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms accommodate, afford, furnish Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge, it is thinking that makes what we read ours. This hotel can accommodate up to 500 guests. afford that expensive sports car. We can't The company accommodated the customer's wish and sent the delivery overnight. affords The tall building a beautiful view of the ocean. English lexicology (III) 52 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms accuse, charge, rebuke The boss negligence The police The police rebuked accused charged him strongly for his him of theft. him with murder. English lexicology (III) 53 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms acute, critical, crucial, urgent acute An lack of food brought hunger to the Iraqi people. It is critical that you study hard for the exam or you will fail it. crucial Improved consumer confidence is to an economic recovery. urgent We have an need for help; we are running out of water. English lexicology (III) 54 9.3 Synonymy Discrimination of synonyms ambiguous, obscure, vague, unclear, dim It is unclear whether the economy will get better. His changes of recovery from illness are . dim He has some ideas about what to do, but vague nothing specific. His ambiguous directions confused us; we did not know which of the two roads to take. The poetry of Ezra Pound is sometimes difficult to understand because it contains so many ------------ ------ references. obscure English lexicology (III) 55 9.4 Antonymy The definition of antonymy Antonymy is concerned with semantic opposition. Antonyms can be defined as words which are opposite in meaning. They are a variety of “oppositeness”. They can be classified into three major groups. English lexicology (III) 56 9.4 Antonymy Types of antonyms Contraries Complementaries Conversives Semantic incompatibles English lexicology (III) 57 9.4 Antonymy Contraries(相对反义词/两极反义词) Antonyms of this type are best viewed in terms of a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable. hot, warm, cool, cold beautiful, pretty, good-looking, plain, ugly old-young, open-close, big-small, poor-rich English lexicology (III) 58 9.4 Antonymy Complementaries(绝对反义词/互补反义词) These antonyms truly represent oppositeness. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them (non-gradable). dead-alive, present-absent, male-female, true-false, approval-disapproval, capableincapable Prefixes: dis-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, un-…… English lexicology (III) 59 9.4 Antonymy Conversives(换位反义词/关系反义词) This third type consists of relational opposites. Husband-wife, fiancé-fiancée, employeremployee, debtor-creditor Above-below, in front of-behind, up-down Buy-sell, give-receive, go-come, gain-lose English lexicology (III) 60 9.4 Antonymy Semantic incompatibles(多项不相容词) North, south, east, west Spring, summer, autumn, winter January, February, March,……December Sunday, Monday, ….Saturday English lexicology (III) 61 9.4 Antonymy A word can have more than one antonyms Fresh bread------stale bread Fresh air-----stuffy air Fresh flowers-----faded flowers Fresh look----tired look English lexicology (III) 62 9.4 Antonymy Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms To achieve emphasis by putting contrasting ideas together, to express economically the opposite of a particular thought. English lexicology (III) 63 9.4 Antonymy Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms United we stand, divided we fall. Hope for the best and prepare for the worst. Visible darkness, a victorious defeat, a clever fool, an open secret, painful pleasure, cruel kindness. English lexicology (III) 64 9.4 Antonymy Stylistic purpose of the use of antonyms It was the best of times, it was the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness; it was the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity; it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness; it was the Spring of Hope, it was the Winter of Despair; we had everything before us, we had nothing before us; we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way. (Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities) English lexicology (III) 65