Theories of Human Development
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Transcript Theories of Human Development
CHAPTER 2
Theories
of Human
Development
Theories of Human Development
Theory: Ideas proposed to
describe/explain certain phenomena
Organizes
Guides
facts/observations
collection of new data
Should be internally consistent
Falsifiable: Hypothesis can be tested
Supported by data
Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory
Instincts and unconscious motivation
Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic
energy (Libido)
Id: Instinctual nature of humans
Ego: Rational and objective
Superego: Internalized moral standards
Dynamic system: Regular conflicts within
Freud’s Psychosexual
Development
Child moves through five stages
Stages result from conflict between Id &
Superego
Conflict creates anxiety
Ego defends against anxiety with defense
mechanisms
Early experiences have long-term effects on
personality
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Freud’s Theory
Strengths
Awareness
of unconscious
motivation
Emphasized
important early
experience
Weaknesses
Ambiguous,
Not
inconsistent, not testable
supported by research
Erik Erikson
Most influential neo-Freudian
Some differences with Freud
Less
emphasis on sexual urges
More
emphasis on rational ego
More
positive, adaptive view of
human nature
Development
adulthood
continues through
Erikson’s Stages
Trust vs. Mistrust: Importance of responsive
caregiver
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt: Preschool
Initiative vs. Guilt: Preschool
Industry vs. Inferiority: School-age children
Identity vs. Role Confusion: Adolescence
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Young adult
Generativity vs. Stagnation: Middle age
Integrity vs. Despair: Old Age
Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson
Strengths
Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still
most relevant
Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature
Interaction of biological & social influences
Weaknesses
Sometimes vague and difficult to test
Does not explain how development comes
about
Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning
Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based
on observable behavior only
Tabula Rasa - Environmental view
Association Learning
UCS: Built-in, unlearned stimulus
UCR: Automatic, unlearned response
CS: Stimulus causes learned response
CR: Learned response
The three phases of classical conditioning
Learning Theories: Operant
Conditioning
Probability
of behavior based on
environmental consequences
Reinforcement
Pleasant
consequence
Increases
probability
Punishment
Decreases
probability
Unpleasant,
aversive
Possible consequences of whining behavior.
Moosie comes into the TV room and sees his father talking and joking
with his sister. Lulu, as the two watch a football game. Soon Moosie
begins to whine, louder and louder, that he wants them to turn off the
television so he can play Nintendo games. If you were Moosie’s father,
how would you react? Here are four possible consequences of Moosie’s
behavior. Consider both the type of consequences – whether it is a
pleasant or aversive stimulus – and whether it is administered (“added
to”) or withdrawn. Notice that reinforcers strengthen whining behavior, or
make it more likely in the future, whereas punishers weaken it.
Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory
Formerly called social learning theory
Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc.
Cognitive Emphasis: Observational learning
BoBo doll studies
Model praised or punished
Child learned to imitate rewarded
Vicarious
reinforcement
model
Learning Theory: Strengths &
Weaknesses
Strengths
Precise and testable theory
Carefully controlled experiments
Practical applications across lifespan
Weaknesses
Inadequate account of lifespan changes
Ignored genetic and maturational
processes
Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory
Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment
Constructivism: Understanding based on
experience
Interactionist
Both biological maturation and experience
required for developmental progress
At each new stage, children think in a
qualitatively different way
Cognitive Developmental Theory
Strengths
Well-accepted by developmentalists
Well-researched, mostly supported
Influenced education and parenting
Weaknesses
Ignores motivation and emotion
Stages not universal especially the last one
Contextual/Systems Theories
Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective
Cognitive development is a social process
Problem solving aided by dialogues
Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems
Genes, neural activity, behavior, and
environment mutually influential
Normal
genes and normal early
experiences most helpful
Gottlieb – Developmental
Psychobiology
Interaction: Biological & environmental
influences
Individual programmed through evolution
Current behavior results from past adaptation
Ethology: Behavior adaptive to specific
environments
E.g., food scarcity creates nomadic behaviors
Species-specific behavior of animals &
humans
Gottlieb: Epigenesis
Instinctual behavior may or may not occur
Depends on early physical and social
environments
Genes alone don’t influence behavior
A system of interactions
People develop in changing contexts
Historical
Cultural
Strengths and Weaknesses
Strengths
Stresses
the interaction of nature
and nurture
Weaknesses
Only
partially formulated and tested
No coherent developmental theory