Le Meridien CHET 3-5 September 2012

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Afro-pessimists: List of ailments of African system – laundry lists of prescriptions, dirty laundry left in the basket 2.

Afro-optimists: Utopian views – world class university, research-led university, vision 2030 to 2050 (the further the better) 3.

Constructive realists: Strengthening evidence-based positive developments 2

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• To use a set of analytical concepts to try and better understand the complex interactions between national economic/education policies and higher education system development • To learn from some OECD countries which have been successful in linking higher education and economic growth • To use eight African countries as contexts for the study • To develop an empirical methodology to operationalise the concepts • Do not assume that the primary/only role for higher education is development 4

HERANA Higher Education Research & Advocacy Network in Africa RESEARCH Higher Education and Development Investigating the complex relationships between higher education and economic development, and student democratic attitudes in Africa The Research-Policy Nexus Investigating the relationship between research evidence and policy-making in selected public policy sectors in South Africa Nordic Masters in Africa (NOMA) Collaborative research training by the Universities of Oslo, Makerere, Western Cape, and CHET ADVOCACY The HERANA Gateway An internet portal to research on higher education in Africa University World News (Africa) Current news and in-depth investigations into higher education in Africa FUNDERS Carnegie, Ford, Rockefeller, Kresge, DFID, Norad 5

• ◦ Three successful (OECD) systems investigated: Finland (Europe), South Korea (Asia), North Carolina (US) • ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Africa Botswana – University of Botswana Ghana – University of Ghana Kenya – University of Nairobi Mauritius – University of Mauritius Mozambique – Eduardo Mondlane South Africa – UCT and Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University Tanzania – University of Dar es Salaam Uganda – Makerere University 6

Higher education studies – Peter Maassen and Nico Cloete Development economist – Pundy Pillay (Wits) Sociology of knowledge – Jo Muller (UCT), Johann Mouton (US) Data analysis - Ian Bunting (DoE), Charles Sheppard (NMMU) Researchers – Tracy Bailey (CHET), Gerald Ouma (Kenya & UWC), Romulo Pinheiro (Oslo), Patricio Langa (Mozambique & UCT), Samuel Fongwa (Cameroon & UFS) • • External Commentators Manuel Castells (USC, Open University, Barcelona) John Douglass (CHES, Berkeley) • Mauritius contributors Fareeda Khodabocus (Director Quality Assurance) • • Henri Li Kam Wah (Professor, Faculty of Science) Praveen Mohadeb (Tertiary Education Commission) 7

A substantial body of academic and technical literature provides evidence of the relationship between informationalism, productivity and competitiveness for countries, regions and business firms. But, this relationship only operates under three conditions: information connectedness; organizational change in the form of networking; and enhancement of the quality of human labour, itself dependent on education and quality of life. (Castells and Cloete, 2011) The structural basis for the growing inequality, in spite of high GDP growth rates in many parts of the world, is the growth of a highly dynamic, knowledge-producing, technologically advanced sector that is connected to other similar sectors in a global network, but it excludes a significant segment of the economy and of the society in its own country. The “disconnect” prevents what Castells calls the ‘virtuous cycle’ between dynamic growth and human development. (Castells and Cloete, 2011) 8

Country Botswana Mauritius South Africa Chile Costa Rica Ghana Kenya Mozambique Uganda Tanzania Finland South Korea USA GDP per capita (PPP, $US) 2007 13 604 11 296 9 757 13 880 10 842 1 334 1 542 802 1 059 1 208 34 256 24 801 45 592 GDP ranking 60 68 78 59 73 153 149 169 163 157 23 35 9 HDI Ranking (2007) 125 81 129 44 54 152 147 172 157 151 12 26 13 GDP ranking per capita minus HDI ranking -65 -13 -51 +15 +19 1 2 -3 6 6 11 9 -4

GDP per capita (current US$) Predicted GDP per capita (current US$) High Australia Italy Low Tunisia Egypt Mexico Brazil Argentina South Africa India Korea Low

Influence of Scientific Research

(R = 0.714, (R = 0.961, P P = 0.218) = 0.002)* China High United States Japan UK Germany Data source: Thomson Reuters InCites TM (21 September 2010); The World Bank Group (2010) 10

Country Stage of development (2009-2010) Ghana Kenya Mozambique Tanzania Uganda Stage 1: Factor-driven Botswana Mauritius South Africa Finland South Korea United States Transition from 1 to 2 Stage 2: Efficiency driven Stage 3: Innovation driven Gross tertiary education enrolment rate (2009) 6 4 2 2 5 20+ 26 + 17 94 98 82 Quality of education system ranking (2009-2010) 71 32 81 99 72 48 50 130 6 57 26 Overall global competitive ranking (2010-2011) 114 106 131 113 118 76 55 54 7 22 4

• • • • • • • Finland, South Korea, North Carolina (USA) As part of reorganising their ‘mode of production’, they developed a pact around a knowledge economy model (high-skills training, research and innovation) Close links between economic and education planning High participation rates with differentiation Strong state steering (different methods) Higher education linked to regional development Responsive to the labour market Strong coordination and networks Pundy Pillay (2010): Linking higher education to economic development: Implications for Africa from three successful systems. (CHET) 12

Higher education’s role in / contribution to development is influenced by three inter-related factors: • • • The nature of the pact between the university leadership, political authorities, and society at large The nature, size and continuity of the academic core The connectedness and coordination of national and institutional knowledge policies to the academic core and to development projects is crucial 13

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A ‘pact’ is defined as a fairly long-term cultural, socio-economic and political understanding and commitment between universities, university leadership, political authorities and society at large of the identity or vision of universities, what is expected of universities, and what the rules and values of the universities are.

Pacts are not only between society and higher education, but also important within the institution. • • • Adebayo – Post-colonial social contract University education as mobility University must provide ‘professionals’’ Time for a new pact 15

External Groupings Students Business Community Funders Govt Government Government departments: Education; Science and Technology; Treasury; Industrial Development; Research Councils Notions and policies Coordination mechanisms Pact Academic Core Connectedness University Leadership/ planning Faculties Academics 16

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Narrative, intent and structures for the role of higher education in development 2.

Visions and plans, i.e. Development Visions (2025-2035) 3.

Policies – development, science and technology, higher education 4.

Methods and structures for co-ordination 17

Key: Mauritius Botswana Indicators 3 Strong 1. The concept of a knowledge economy features in the national development plan 2. A role for higher education in development in national policies and plans 3. Concept of KE features in institutional polices and plans Appears in a number of policies Prevalent Clearly mentioned in development policies Systematic Policy Framework Formal structures Headed by senior minister 4. Link between universities and national authorities 5. Co-ordination and consensus building of government agencies involved in higher education 2 Weak Only mentioned in new Tertiary education policy Only mentioned in research plan of university Some formal structures but no meaningful co ordination Intermittent interaction with ineffective forums 1 Absent Not stated directly Hardly mentioned Political rather than professional networks Higher education issues limited mainly to one ministry or directorate 18

INDICATORS NATIONAL LEVEL Max. score Botswana Ghana Kenya Mauritius Moz.

South Africa Tanzania Uganda 9 3 3 6 7 4 6 4 3 Economic development and higher education planning are linked Coordination and consensus building of government agencies involved in higher education Link between universities and national authorities 3 3 3 1(2) 1 1 1 1 (2) 1 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 19

Connectedness University not part of national development model/strategy University part of national development model/strategy No or marginal role for new knowledge in development model Central role for new knowledge in development model Ancillary Self-governance Instrument Engine 20

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Strong agreement (pact) about a development model Mauritius is the only case study where country and university has accepted that knowledge, and higher education, is key to development. The reorganisation of the Ministry of Education, and linking Tertiary Education, Science, Research and Technology reflects this changed thinking.

There is awareness, and policies, about the importance of the knowledge economy approach across ministries.

Question: is the pact strong enough and is the university delivering on the pact?

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• Burton Clarke refers to the ‘academic heartland’ and a ‘stronger steering core’ • ◦ ◦ ◦ The universities in the HERANA sample are public and ‘flagship’ universities which claim in mission statements that they: have high academic ratings, are centres of academic excellence engaged in high quality research and teaching, and contribute to development • These are the key “knowledge institutions” in these countries • Assumption : For a university to contribute to development it needs a strong academic core 23

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Increased enrolments in science, engineering and technology (SET) – AU regards SET as a development driver 2.

Increased postgraduate enrolments – knowledge economy requires increasing numbers of workers with postgraduate qualifications 3.

Favourable academic staff-to-student ratio – workload should allow for research and PhD supervision 4.

High proportion of academic staff with PhDs – high correlation (0.82 in South Africa) between doctorates and research output 5.

Adequate research funding per academic – and from multiple sources 24

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High graduation rates in SET fields – not only must enrolments increase, but also graduate output 2.

Increased knowledge production (doctoral graduates) – for reproduction of academic core, to produce academics for other universities and for demand in other fields 3.

Increased knowledge production (publications) – research publications in ISI peer-reviewed journals 25

Target = 40% S&T enrolments Science & technology 100% 80% 51% 39% 60% 40% 27% 34% 20% 0% 22% Botswana 2001 27% Botswana 2010 Business & management Humanities and social sciences 18% 26% 56% Mauritius 2001 24% 33% 42% Mauritius 2010 33% 26% 41% Cape Town 2001 37% 22% 41% Cape Town 2010 26

100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 1% 9% Undergraduate 1% 6% Masters Doctors 7% 20% 90% 93% 73% Botswana Mauritius Cape Town 27

Life & physical sciences Health sciences Engineering 13% 13% 18% 22% 28% 19% 30% 29% Computer & math sciences 12% 10% 3% Built environment 10% 14% Agriculture 0% 0% 6% 0% 5% 10% 15% 36% 36% Mauritius 20% 25% Botswana 30% Cape Town 35% 40% 28

Science & technology All other fields 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 18 40 Botswana 58 40 9 Mauritius 49 Total 723 387 Cape Town 1110 29

Highest qualification levels of permanent academic staff Other 9% Mauritius Botswana Masters 46% Doctorate 45% Masters 49% Doctorate 51% Masters 30% Other 12% Cape Town Doctorate 58%

Science & Technology All other fields Total 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 25 5 Botswana 12 3 Mauritius 15 115 45 Cape Town 160 31

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The Web of Science (WoS) database, which is part of the ISI Web of Knowledge and is produced by Thomson Reuters, could be considered one of the most reputable international sources of peer-reviewed research publications. 2.

CREST (Stellenbosch) download into an Access database all papers for the period 2008-2010 containing at least one Mauritian author. Altogether 200 papers produced by Mauritius were identified in this way for the period 2008-2010, of which 139 (70%) could be assigned to the University of Mauritius. A paper refers to either an article or review paper.

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It must be remembered that the WoS database was expanded substantially in recent years, meaning that any increases in output can also be partially explained in terms of new journal additions.

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160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 71 28 2004 Botswana 108 36 2006 145 Mauritius 107 62 30 2008 2010 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Botswana 2004 2006 Mauritius Cape Town 2008 2010 33

100% 90% 80% 30% 20% 10% 0% 70% 60% 50% 40% 2008 2009 2010 SET Other Humanities Education Business and Commerce 34

18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 13449 5164 5622 685 13098 5528 5456 761 1996 1998 Doctoral enrolments 14184 6394 5936 961 14673 7763 6483 969 2000 2002 Doctoral graduates 15423 8790 6660 1104 15809 9800 8003 1100 2004 2006 Research publications 15936 9939 8353 1182 2008 16684 11468 9748 2010 Permanent academics Doctoral enrolments Research publications 1421 Doctoral graduates Permanent academics 35 35

45,0% 40,0% 35,0% 30,0% 25,0% 20,0% 15,0% 10,0% 5,0% 0,0% -5,0% 40,0% 17,1% 10,0% 8,5% 7,1% 6,4% 6,2% Major expansion of higher education has boosted PhD output in many countries, shown here as average annual growth of doctoral degrees across all disciplines. 6,2% 6,1% 5,2% 2,5% 1,0% 0,0% -2,2% Source: Nature. International weekly journal in Science

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Mauritius is not changing significantly from a undergraduate teaching institution, to a knowledge producing institution The strength in SET is shifting to business studies On input indicators, UoM scores strongly on SET enrolments and graduation On output indicators, very strong on graduation rates, but weak on doctoral production and research (publication) output – which has significantly increased, but from a low base. Very low international collaboration 37

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UoM is shifting from a strength in SET to becoming a "typical" African undergraduate institution with too large an enrolment in business studies – Mamdani's commercialisation As the key knowledge institution, should UoM be competing with private institutions in business? Is the pact strong enough to shift resources to knowledge production (increase funding for research, incentive structure for staff, low international collaboration) The knowledge production output variables of the academic core indicate that UoM is not yet strong enough to be a knowledge hub 38

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TEC should, with international collaboration, consider a Knolwedge Audit of the Muaritian HE system The Audit could: Map the type and level of programme/skills produced • • Map knolwedge produced beyond ISI type publications Investigate ''connectivity" and "'connectivity meeting • places'" Develop a clearer "knolwdge role definition" for instituions 3. Assemble high profile exteranal panel to advise on Audit results 4. Strengthen HES analytical capacity in TEC 39

Books and reports

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Linking Higher Education and Economic Development: Implications for Africa

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from three successful systems (Pillay)

Universities and Economic Development in Africa: Pact, academic core and

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coordination (Cloete, Bailey, Maassen)

Universities and Economic Development in Africa: Key findings 4.

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(Cloete, Bailey, Bunting & Maassen) Country and University Case Studies: Botswana (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay) Country and University Case Studies: Ghana (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay) Country and University Case Studies: Kenya (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay)

Country and University Case Studies: Mauritius (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay)

Country and University Case Studies: Mozambique (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay) Country and University Case Studies: South Africa (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay) 10. Country and University Case Studies: Tanzania (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay) 11. Country and University Case Studies: Uganda (Bailey, Cloete, Pillay)