Transcript PowerPoint 演示文稿 - East China Normal University

Understanding
Public Policy
Thomas Dye, 10th edition
CONTENTS
Chap. 1: Policy Analysis
Chap. 2: Models of Politics
Chap. 3: Policymaking Process
Chap. 4: Criminal Justice
Chap. 5: Health and Welfare
Chap. 6: Education
Chap. 7: Economic Policy
Chap. 8: Tax Policy
Chap. 9: International Trade and Immigration
Chap. 10: Environmental Policy
Chap. 11: Civil Rights: Elite and Mass Interaction
Chap. 12: American Federalism
Chap. 13: Defense Policy
Chap. 14: Policy Evaluation
Chap 1: Policy Analysis
Policy-public policy is whatever government
chooses to do or not to do/ a projected program of
goals, values and practices.
-today people expect government to do many
things for them
-understanding the causes and consequences of
policy decisions improves our knowledge of
society
-policy studies helps us learn about the linkage
between social and economic conditions in society
-policy studies incorporate the ideas and methods
of economics, sociology, anthropology, psycology,
history, law and public administration
-public policy can be studied for political
purposes to ensure that the nation adopts the
"right" policies to achieve the "right" goals
-policy analysis is finding out what governments
do, why they do it and what difference, if anything
it makes
-learning about the consequences of public policy
is often referred to as policy evaluation
Policy analysis involves
1. A concern with explanation rather than
presumption
2. A rigorous search of the causes and
consequences of public policy
3. An effort to develop test general propositions
about the causes and consequences of public
policy and to accumulate reliable findings of
general relevance.
-questionable that policy analysis can ever "solve"
nation's problems
-policy analysis cannot offer solutions to
problems when there is no general agreement on
what the problems are
-it cannot solve value conflicts
-policy analysis is one activity for which there can
be no fixed programs
Chap 2: Models of Politics
1. Models of Politics - used to simplify, identify
certain aspects, understand and explain policies
A. Institutional Model
Describe specific institutions and certain aspects
of those institutions
- structures, organization, duties, and functions.
Also analyze the effect these aspects have on
policy outputs
B. Process Model
Process model follows these steps:
- identify problem, set agenda, formulate policy,
implementation, and evaluation
- Shows how decisions are made, and how they
should be made
- Helps to understand activities involved in
policy-making
C. Group Theory
Interaction among groups is the central aspect of
politics
- People come together through common
interests
- Public policy is the equilibrium reached in a
group struggle, which is political activity
- Parties are viewed as coalitions of groups
D. Elite Theory
- People are apathetic and ill-informed, therefore
elite shapes mass opinion
- Implies that public policy does not truly reflect
the wants to the people as much as the elites
- Elitism views masses as passive and easily
manipulated
E. Rational Model
- “Achieves maximum social gain"
- Policy should never have costs that exceed gains
- Must know societies values, all alternatives, and
the consequences of the alternatives
F. Incrementalism
- Views public policy as a continuation of past
government activities with only small modifications
- Conservative because it considers existing policy
as a base, and new programs are ignored
- Believe that policies that are in effect has been
proven, why alter what has proven effective
G. Game Theory
- Study of rational decisions where one choice
depends on the outcome of another choice
- An abstract and deductive model of policy
making
- More an analytic tool than a practical guide
H. Public Choice
- The economic study of non-market decision
making
- Recognizes government must perform certain
functions that market is unable to handle
- Seen in elections, candidates are more
concerned with winning than advancing principles
I.
Systems Theory
- Political system is a group of interrelated
structures that allocate values for a society
- Sees public policy as an output of the political
system
- By arranging settlements, demands are
transformed into output (policies)
2. How to Tell if the Models are Helping
Do they:
- Order and simplify reality
- Identify what is significant
- Congruent with reality
- Provide meaningful communication
- Direct inquiry and research
- Suggest explanations
Chap 3 : Policymaking Process
I. How Policies Are Made:
A. Identify the problem
B. Agenda Setting: focus the media on the
situation
C. Formulate the policy proposals
D. Legitimize policies through governmental and
political groups
E. Implement policy through bureaucracies
F. Evaluate policies by governmental agencies
II. Identification: Public Opinion
A. Opinion-policy linkage: Never know if public
opinion shapes policy or if policy shapes opinion.
1. PO Key established evidence that elections,
parties, and interest groups do institutionalize
channels of communication from citizens to
decision makers.
B. Policy effects: Public policy shapes public
opinion more often than the reverse.
1. Public opinion is unstable
2. Few people have opinions on a great bulk of
policy questions
3. Leaders do not have precise view of opinion
because they hear from elites
C. Media Effects:
1. News believe they are public opinion but are
often wrong because they confuse their opinion
with that of the public.
2. Shape public opinion by saying it is the mass
opinion.
3. Decision makers respond to news because they
think it is the opinion of the people.
D. Opinion Polls
Pollsters produce opinions because no one admits
when they don’t have an opinion on a subject.
E. Instability of Opinion
1. Public opinion tends to be unstable.
2. Never real changes, just appear as such
F. Wording of Questions
1. Opinions vary according to the wording of the
question
2. Can word things to elicit approval or disapproval
G. Communicating with Policymakers
1. Decision makers can misinterpret opinion
because of elite bias in information.
2. Congress world of opinion is self reinforcing
3. Those who write or call senators are usually
more informed
III. Identifying Policy Issues: Elite Opinion
A. Elite preferences are more likely to be in accord
with policy than mass opinion.
B. Can be argued that decision makers are acting
rationally to their argument?
IV. Agenda Setting and Non-decisions
A. Creating an issue, dramatizing it, calling attention
to it, and pressuring government to do something
about it are important political tactics, they are
tactics of agenda setting.
B. “Non-decision making: It occurs when influential
individuals or groups or the political system itself
operates in society.
• It happens when officials hide an issue because
they fear it will not be in their best interest.
• When political candidates and office holders feel
elites will not favor it.
• The political system itself is structured in such a
way as to facilitate resolution of some issues and
to obstruct others.
C. “Mobilization of bias": A set of values which
operate systematically and consistently to the
benefit of others.
V. Agenda setting and mobilizing opinion: The
mass media
A. Television is where a reported 2/3 of American
people get their information
B. Media power:
• Media is a player and referee in politics
• It sets the agenda of public discussion
• It concentrated with a small number of people
• Not much diversity in news reporting
C. News-making: It involves important decisions
on what is news and what is worthy of reporting
• Media attention can create personalities and
issues.
• It provides cues to audience on the importance
of an issue, personality, or event
• "Media event" arranged primarily to attract
coverage and thus attention
D. Media Effects:
• Identifying issues and setting the agenda for
policymakers
• Influencing attitudes and values toward policy
issues.
• Changing behavior of voters and decision makers
• Power of TV lies in setting the agenda for decision
making
VI. Formulating Policy
A. Policy formulation is the development of policy
alternatives dealing with problems on the
public agenda.
B. The White House: President and the executive
branch are expected to be policy initiators and
Congress the arbitrators
C. Interest groups: Formulate their own policy or
do so in association with Congress members
D. Legislative Staffs: Reflect the general view of
their bosses, the research issues, schedule
legislative hearings, line up expert to testify
and write and rewrite bills
E. Think Tanks: Policy planning organizations are
central in coordinating points in policymaking;
they bring together corporate and financial
institutions, mass media, government officials, and
intellectuals to reach a consensus on what action
should take place.
• Brookings Institute
• American Enterprise Institute
• The Heritage Foundation
• Council on Foreign Relations
VII. Policy Legitimation
The proximate policymakers
A. The president, congress, congressional
committees, White House Staff, and interest
groups are main focus
B. The open, public, stage of policymaking
C. Conclude it is a process of bargaining,
competition, persuasion and compromise
D. Decisions of the policymakers center around
means rather than ends of policy
VIII. Party Influence on Public Opinion
A. It makes relatively little difference in the
major direction of public policy whether
Democratic or Republic dominate the political
scene
B. They are more committed to winning office
than advancing policy positions
IX. Policy Implementation: The Bureaucracy
A. The implementation is the continuation of
politics by other means
B. Implementation and Policy making:
- All the activities designed to carry out the policies
enacted by legislative branch.
- Create new organizations, assign responsibilities.
- These organizations translate laws, spend money,
and perform tasks, etc.
- Much of the actual policymaking occurs within
these organizations.
C. Regulation and Policymaking: develop formal
rules and regulations
• Publish rules in the Federal Register( see p331
for list of requirements)
D. Adjudication and Policymaking: Bureaucrats
decide whether a person, firm, corp., comply with
the laws
E. Bureaucratic Discretion and Policymaking: Most
bureaucracy is performing routine tasks but they
decide how to apply these tasks.
F. Policy Bias of Bureaucrats: Personal beliefs
inspire bureaucrats to expand powers, functions,
and budgets of their agencies
X. Policy Evaluation: Impressionistic vs Systematic
A. Systematic (Sophisticated) model: A feedback
link that identifies problems, and set the process
in motion again - systematic rarely occurs
B. Impressionistic: model: It comes from interest
groups complaints, legislative hearings, media
stories, and citizens complaints - stimulate reform
Chap 4: Criminal Justice
- Crime fighting strategy is deterrence: To make
cost of committing crime greater than benefits
committing the crime.
-Deterrence Strategy focuses on:
• certainty- crime= costly punishment
• swiftness- justice must be swift
• severity- it has to be harsh
- Author argues that crime is down and that it can
be attributed to, crackdowns, community policing
and longer prison sentences.
- He makes point that juvenile crime is on the rise
and attributes it to their lax punishment. He feels
as though in the juvenile sector that there is an
absence of deterrence and this adds to criminal
behavior.
- The book argues that American system of
justice is not a deterrent because it lacks
swiftness, certainty and severity.
-He blames crime rate on:
• Social Heterogeneity
• Socialization and Control
• Irrational Crime
• Innate Aggression
• Deterrence vs. Liberty
- Thomas Dye makes the point that crime ends up
paying off in the criminals eyes.
- Public now expects federal involvement in law
enforcement we see this through:
Law Enforcement Act of 1994
Federal Gun Control Act of 1968
Brady Law
-Book says that development of policies in
Criminal Justice is complicated by conflicting
values. On one hand we are committed to due
process, yet we are also determined to fight
crime (One is a fast process, the other slow).
- He ends by looking at the Death Penalty. He
believes it has no deterring effect and that it falls
short because of racial bias and infrequency of
use. Although he still makes the argument that
as crime gets worse more people want to use it.
Chapter 5: Health and Welfare
- Poor are not principal beneficiaries of social
welfare. Only 1/6 goes to low incomes.
- Entitlements: government benefits for which
Congress has a set criteria-anyone meeting them
may receive benefits
- Largest amounts of entitlement spending goes to
Social Security, Medicare, and Vet. & Fed.
retirement
- Rational approach to social welfare is difficult
due to nature and extent of poverty
- SSA of 1935 helps establish a basic framework
- Depression produces realization that poverty is
not always individuals fault, from this, comes
various types of insurances:
• Social Security- most expensive program in
federal budget
• Medicare- health services for the elderly
• Medicaid- health services for the poor (largest
welfare to the poor)
• Food Stamps
• Temporary assistance for Needy families
- Clash in Values over charity:
Individual Responsibility vs. Social Compassion
- Can social welfare policies create poverty by
eliminating incentives to work
- Health care reform focuses on 2 major problems:
Controlling costs
Expending costs
- Important because everyone has a stake in the
national health care system
Chapter 6: Education
I. Goals of Education
A) Resolve racial conflicts and build an integrated
society
B) Inspire patriotism and good citizenship
C) Provide Values
D) Various forms of recreation and entertainment
E) Reduce conflict
F) Basically everything except educating
II. Battling Over the Basics
A. Citizen groups that have an interest in education
• Parents
• Taxpayers
• Employers
B. Public Strongly Support:
• The 3 "rs" : Reading, Writing, Arithmetic
• Enforcing minimum standards with testing
• Testing teachers for mastery of basic skills
C. SAT scores
• SAT scores where declining due to more students
taking the test
• College Board recentered scores in 1996 to boost
scores
• Now more than 500 students a year make a
perfect 1600
D. Global Comparison
• Performance of 500,000 U.S. 13 year olds tested
compared with 42 nations was 28 in math and 17
in science.
• The top nations had a cultural value for
education and is valued in the family
E. Nation at Risk
1983 report by National Commission on
Excellence in Education (A Nation at Risk)
recommended a back to the basic reform
a. Minimum high school curriculum of 4 years of
English, 3 yrs of math, 3 yrs of social science,
and ? year of computer science
b. 4-6 yrs of foreign language beginning in
elementary school
c. Standardized testing for achievement
d. More homework, a 7 hr school day, and a 200220 day school year
e. Reliable grades and standardized tests for
promotion and graduation
f. “Performance based" salaries for teachers
F. Testing
Minimum Competence Testing (MCT)
a. Test used for the need of remedial education or
requirement for promotion or graduation
b. About the states require these test and are
usually on 8th or 9th grade
c. Educators fear this will start teaching to the test
education
d. Some charges of the test are racially biased
G. Teacher Testing
NEA opposes all teacher testing, but the AFT
willing to accept competency testing only for new
teachers
III. Educational Groups
A. Citizens vs. Professionals
• Citizens are often pitted against professional
educators about education policy
• Citizen groups believe education should be a local
matter through elected school boards
• Elected school boards do not have the knowledge
to deal with today’s issues
• Superintendents are full time administrators who
receives advice from professionals and sets the
agenda for board meetings
• Professional educators feel politics should be left
out of schools but citizens want to have control
B. Professional educators
• School teachers: largest group - about 2 million
• School administrators - most powerful
• Faculties of teacher colleges and dept of
educations at universities
C. Teacher Unions
• NEA: National Education Association - largest
• AFT: American Federation of Teachers - small,
affiliated with AFL-CIO
D. Voters and Taxpayers
• Voters that turn out for elections or school
referendum votes
• The larger the voter turnout the less likely a
school bill will be passed
E. School Boards
• Selected largely from concerned parents and
civic leaders
F. Racial and Religious groups
• Groups like NAACP, National Catholic Education
Conference, American Jewish Congress, etc
• Have fought battles over segregation, racial
issues, prayer and Bible reading
• Community- based religious groups fight for
return of traditional moral values
IV. Federal Government Role in Education
A. Traditionally education has been the
responsibility of local community, later it became
the responsibility of the state, federal government
is just a spectator
B. State and local taxpayers have always borne
90% of public education costs
C. Early Federal Aid
• Started off as land grants and later went to free
lunches then to financial aid
D. ESEA
• Elementary and Secondary Education Act 1965
• Single largest federal aid to education programs
• Poverty-impacted schools were principal
benefactors
E. Educational Block Grants
• Reagan administration consolidated all education
funds into the Education Consolidation and
Improvement Act in 1981 into single block grants
for states and communities
• Purpose was to give state and local districts
greater discretion over the use of federal
educational aid
F. Head Start
• Most popular federal educational aid program
came from LBJs war on poverty
• Provide special preschool preparation to
disadvantaged children before entering k or 1st
grade
• No conclusive evidence it is effective but
politically popular
G. Federal Aid and Educational Quality
• Educational achievement is dependent on how
money is spent, not how much
V. Educational Reform and Parental Choice
A. Goals 2000
• Clintons policy designed to enhance national
educational goals developed by Bush and state
governors
- Every Child must start school ready to learn
- High school graduation rate will be increased to
at least 90%
- US students become 1st in world in math and
science
- Every adult American will become literate
- Every school in the US will be free of drugs and
violence and will offer a disciplined environment
cohesive to learning
• Not clear how they were to be achieved
• Act specifically denies government control of
curriculum, instruction, and allocation of state
and local education
B. Clinton Initiatives
• Supported National testing and proposed
additional federal funds for school construction,
tax credits and deductions for college tuition
• Issue of who will set National standards and
how to measure achievement
C. What works?
• Research shows children do better when
schools are seen as an extension of their families
D. Parental Choice
• Parental choice is supposed to encourage
competition which in turn encourages academic
advancement
• Allow parents to make educators give students
what they want or they risk a large loss in
enrollment
E. Charter schools
• Community educational groups sign a charter
with their school district or state authority to
establish their own school
• Have to show specific student achievement
• Results unknown because of few established
schools
F. Magnet Schools
• Specialized schools in academic areas, or
adopted by businesses, etc
• Have reputation for quality and specialized
instruction, recommended for inner city areas to
attract white pupils
G. Privatized Public Schools
• A private profit-making corporation makes a
contract with the school districts
• Lower cost to school districts
• Opposed by public school administrators, public
school teachers, and unions
H. Educational Values
• Vouchers that would be given to parents to
spend at any school, public or private
• All public and private schools would compete
equally for students and state education funds
would flow to those schools that enrolled more
students
• Strong Opposition especially by professional
school administrators and state and educational
agencies
• Say it interrupts educational planning and
threatens vitality of schools
• Some fear public education will be undermined
and divert money from public schools to private
schools
VI. Battle over school financing
A. Inequality among districts
• Money in schools depends on the amount of
economic resources
• Most money comes from land taxes so schools
with little land has little money
B. Constitutional issue
• Supreme court says it is not a violation of 14th
amendment
• State courts are making legislators do
something about it
VII. Public Policy and Higher Education
A. Public Universities
• 3/4 of college students go to public colleges or
universities
B. Federal Aid
• State government carries the major burden of
higher education
• Federal government directly assists many college
students through grants and loans
C. Student Assistance
• Pell Grants
• Stafford Loans
• Perkins Loan
• Work Study
• Most financial aid is given to middle class students
D. Research money is given to large Universities for
scientific research
VIII. Groups in higher education
A. Trustees: Set broad policy directions and keep
higher education from becoming politically
saturated by governors and legislators
B. Presidents: Chief spokesperson to maintain
support and delegate responsibilities
C. Faculty
D. Unions: AAUP-American Association of
University Professors and AFT
E. Students - least influential of all groups
IX Reading, Writing and Religion
A. Separation of church and state comes from first
amendment
B. Does not prohibit adoption of programs that
help all children
C. Prayer is unconstitutional in almost all ways
Chapter 7: Economic Policy
-Economic policy is exercised through fiscal
policies: decisions about taxation, spending and
deficit levels monetary policies: money supply and
interest rates
-Decided by federal spending levels
-Fiscal and monetary policies have small changes
at existing levels
-Goals of economic policy growth in economic
output and standards of living, full and productive
employment of the nations work force and stable
prices with low inflation
-This type of policy making is an example of
incrementalism because it uses last year’s
spending to decide present years budgeting
-Theories used in this type of policy making:
macroeconomics: tries to explain economic cycles
and to prescribe governmental policies to counter
inflation and recession classical: view market
economy as self adjusting mechanism
Keynesian:
Economic stability product of fluctuations in
demands, written into employment act of 1946promotes "maximum employment production and
purchasing power"
- Reagan used Supply side economics - long term
growth is more important than short term
demand- free market is better equipped than
government to bring lower prices and supply and
demand
- Clinton used Enterprise Economics- government
is responsible to stimulate growth- and invest in
• human capital
• technology
• infrastructure
- Monetarist Economics- stability can be achieved
only by holding rate of money and economic growth
at the same pace
-Government spending has grown because of
"Uncontrollable benefits“, for example:
entitlement programs
index of benefits
cost of in-kind benefits( non-cash)
interest on debt
back door spending
- Social Security is the largest item in the budget
while Medicare and Medicaid are the fastest
growing
-Burden of Debt government spends more than it
receives in revenues and this drives up the debt
things that cause this:
burdening future
slowing economic growth
limiting policy initiatives
default & Hyperinflation
dealing with deficits
Tax increase & Deficits
Deficits and entitlements
Politics of deficits
- Formal Budgetary Process & Spending Agencies
OMB in the executive office- has key responsibility
for budget preparation (president has no formal
powers over taxing and spending
House and Senate budget committees- they
established the CBO to review presidential budget
after submission to congress
Appropriations Act- provides money for spending,
nothing can be spent without it
Appropriations Committees- used for specific
appropriations in both houses (more in the
house than the senate)
Revenue Act-House Committee on ways and
means and the senate finance committee work
mostly with taxation
Presidential Veto
Continuing Resolutions and "Shutdowns"- any
government agency that does not pass an
appropriations act may not take money from the
treasury and is obligated to shut down
continuing resolutions allows a way around this
Chapter 8: Tax Policy
Introduction
-There is no better illustration of the influence of
interest groups in policymaking than natal tax
policy
-Tax laws treat different types of income
differently
-Unfairness, complexity, & inefficiency of tax
laws can be attributed to interest groups
-Tax Reform Act 1986, IGs suffer defeat
Federal Tax System
-Total revenues from taxes and fees consistently
fail to match total spending by the government
Individual Income Taxes
-largest single source of revenue
Corporate Income Taxes
-12% fed government income
Social Security Taxes
- 36% fed government income
- Today taxpayers pay more in Social Security
taxes than income taxes
Estate and Gift Taxes
Excise and Custom Duties
-Luxury items account for 1-2% income
Taxation, Fairness, and Growth
- Progressive tax: high income pay higher
percentage of incomes in taxes
- Proportionality/flat tax: all income groups pay
same rate
- Universality: all types of income subject to same
rates
Economic Growth
- High taxes discourage growth
- Argues that if taxes were reduced, might
increase government revenue become/ encourage
growth
-Economic Recovery Tax Cut Act of 1981
Reagan tax cuts take effect and nation began
economic recovery and slowed rate of growth of
natal revenue
Tax Reform and Special Interests
- Tax Reform Act of 1986--reduction in tax rates in
place of tax breaks
-Many opponents--industry, real estate,
multinational corps, oil & gas, labor unions.
Compromising with Special Interest
-Key to overcoming opposition of special interests
was to offer a tax rate low enough that most
people would be willing to give up deductions and
preferences
-Bipartisan effort against special interests
Clinton, Deficits, and Taxes
- Clinton won on promise to revive economy
- Clinton proposed raising taxes on affluent,
elderly, corps, & energy
- Clinton and Reps agree to middle class tax cut in
1997
Tax Reform and the Flat Tax
- Flat tax--eliminate exemptions, exclusions,
deductions, & special treatment with 19% tax on
all forms of income
-National sales tax-- replace federal income tax
and get rid of IRS; penalize consumption not
production
-IRS--Simplifying tax laws would not only reduce
cost of paying taxes but reassure taxpayer that
system is fair..It would reduce the power of the
IRS... taxpayers bill of rights might strengthen
safeguards against arbitrary actions of IRS
Chapter 9: "International Trade and Immigration"
Public Policy Analysis
- 1/4 of the world’s total output is sold in a
country other that where it was made
- US exports 11%--aircraft, computers-- and
imports 12%--automobiles
- Comparative Advantage: what each nation
produces best & shift toward making that
- US corps want lower trade barriers around the
world--lower US tariffs
- GATT--General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade-regulate international trade
- WTO--World Trade Organization--adjudicate
trade disputes among nations
- IMF--International Monetary Fund--facilitate
trade by lending
- World Bank--long term loans
- NAFTA--eventual removal of all tariffs between
US, Canada, and Mexico
- Dumping--sale of foreign goods in US markets
at prices lower than charged in home--Japanese
automobiles
- Foreign trade lower US wages
- US corps want immigration for cheap labor
- Immigration Act of 1921--max # immigrants
accepted each year
- Immigration and Reform Act of 1986/ SimpsonMazzoli Act---regulate employers hiring
immigrants
- Aliens have no Constitutional right to come to
US, but once here that have right to due process
and equal protection
- US Supreme Court mandate that state and local
government cant exclude immigrants from
benefits
- Proposition 187
Chapter 10: Environmental Policy
I.
Public Choice and the Environment
Environmental Externalities
Externalities occur when one individual, firm,
government undertakes an activity that
imposes unwanted costs on others
-The shifting of costs onto others
Costs of Regulation
Environmental policies are costly, but all
government combined pays 1/4
other 3/4 of 100 billion/year is paid by business
and consumers
Benefits in Relation to Costs
Costs of policies should not outweigh benefits to
society
Risk Assessment
Environmental policy is a respondent to popularly
perceived risks
-Some level of risk will always be present in
environmental policy
Bureaucratic Incentives
They will face intense criticism if they do not
impose health regulations
Command and Control
Traditional approach of environment. Policy
where controls are designated by administrative
or legislative rules
Market Incentives
-More effective to establish private economic
incentives to curb pollution than uniform
regulations
II. Environmental Externalities
Solid Waste Disposal
landfills, incineration, recycling
Hazardous Waste
Water Pollution
Sludge, organic wastes, and chemical effluents
Air Pollution
-Motor vehicles, electrical power plants, and
heating are all main sources
III. Interest Group Effects
Interest Group Economics
Recruit members and money to dramatize
environmental threats
Shaping Public Opinion
Difficult to give really effective media coverage
due to difficulty of subject, however, activity and
media coverage caused shift in public opinion
Interest Group Politics
- show selves as clean, opposition as dirty
- must prove cost to fix is lower than results if not
fixed
Radical Environmentalism
Opposition to economic development, scientific
advancement, and even humanity
IV. Political Involvement
EPA; NEPA; Clean Air acts of 1970,1990; Water
pollution control act of 1972, Endangered Species
Act of 1973, etc.
EPA is the most powerful and far-reaching
bureaucracy in government today
V. Alternative Solutions
Property rights and takings
Regulatory problems
Pollution taxes and Emission Allowances
Waste charges
Chapter 11 : "Civil Rights: Elite and Mass
Interaction"
"Civil Rights policy is a response of a national
elite to conditions affecting a minority of
Americans rather than a response of national to
majority sentiments."
Mass Opinion Differences
• Most whites believe that there is little
discrimination toward blacks
• Blacks believe that they are not treated
equally in employment, housing, etc.
• White majority opinion only changed after
civil rights policy has been implemented
• Poor, uneducated whites posses the least
favorable attitudes toward blacks
Well educated, successful whites are more
concerned with discrimination and more eager
to socialize with blacks
• A majority of whites believe we have enough
regulations against discrimination
• Civil Rights policy reflects the views of
Congress, the president and the Supreme Court
exp.: 14th Amendment
exp.: Civil Rights Act of 1875, passed by
Congress but declared
unconstitutional in 1883
Mass Resistance to Desegregation
• The branches of government get involved to
enforce civil rights policy
exp.: Civil Rights Act of 1964 - Congress
threatens segregated school, with loss of federal
financial assistance
exp.: 1957 - President Eisenhower uses
military force to integrate Little Rock's Central
High School
Busing
• Suppose to end racial isolation in public
schools
• Mass reaction - white children sent to private
school, by parents
• End result - schools end up more segregated
than before
Civil Rights Movement
• Supported equality of opportunity
• Ability to be able to develop one's talents and
abilities
Affirmative Action
• Supports equality of results
• Sharing of incomes, jobs and material
rewards, regardless of someone's economic
position
• Not supported by the white mass
Supreme Court Cases
States vs Paradise (1987)
-50% black quota system for promotions
in the Alabama Dept. of Public
Safety upheld
• Purpose to correct past discrimination
• Richmond v.s. Crosen (1989)
-Questioned affirmative action
-Minority set aside program in Virginia
violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th
Amendment
Feminist
• 1880's feminism centered on the protection of
women in families
• Early 20th century feminism concentrated on
women's suffrage
• 1970's feminism focused on the ERA to the
Constitution
• Failed - was not ratified by 38 states
Civil Rights Laws
• Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prevents racial and sexual discrimination in hiring
and promotions
• Federal Equal Credit Opportunity Act
Amendment of 1974 - prohibits sex discrimination
in credit transactions
• Title IX of the Education Act Amendment of
1972 - bars discrimination in admissions, housing,
rules, financial aid, pay and staff recruitment
Conclusion:
• Rational civil rights policy is initiated by some
elite
• Mass resistance can only serve to limit the
lengths to which the elite can go
• Problem: shift the definition of "elite"
Chapter 12: American Federalism
Chap13: Defense Policy
-Each nation must have its own defense policy:
assess threats develop strategies appropriate
forces/budget
CONFRONTING NUCLEAR THREATS
-Deterrence: maintains nuclear peace, emphasizes
2nd strike capability, psychological defense,
fear of retaliation
-Strategic Weapons: TRIAD defense (ICBMs
(Minuteman), sub-based missiles (Trident
missiles), manned bombers (B-52 bombers)
-“Second strike capability"
ARMS CONTROL GAMES
SALT I- (strategic arms limitation talks), 1972
between US and USSR, 1st effort to limit
nuclear weapons and ABS (anti-ballistic missile
systems)
SALT II- (1979), "over-all limit" on nuclear launch
vehicles(bombers and missiles, but subs
untouched)
START- (strategic arms reduction talks),
reductions in nuclear weapons, equality,
verification with long- and short-term notice
START I- (1991), agreement on long-range
missiles
START II- eliminates 1st-strike nuclear attack by
beginning to reduce amount and only have
reactionary nuclear defenses
POST COLD WAR NUCLEAR
DETERENCES/DEFENSES
-minimal deterrence- dismantling of all old
weapons
-non deterrable threats- terrorists, rougue
generals/unauthorized launches, accidental
launches
-spread of mass terror weapons- Iran, Iraq, Libya
-Ballistic Missile Defense(aka Star Wars)- weapons
in space to be used as defense (i.e.,
lasers/missiles to shoot down incoming
missiles/bombers)
NATO AND EUROPEAN SECURITY
-NATO- (north Atlantic treaty organization), U.S.
and allies, opposed by Warsaw Pact (USSR
and other communist allies)
-collapse of eastern communism- reduced threat
on western Europe and U.S
-Germany Reunited-balances power in Europe
-USSR crumbles- Soviet Union collapses, Warsaw
pact folds
REGIONAL THREATS
-Middle East- (Iran, Iraq, Libya, Syria)
-Asia- (Taiwan, North Korea)
TERRORISM
-Punish terrorists and terrorist-sponsored nations
-Dissuade other nations from using or supporting
terrorists
WHEN TO USE MILITARY FORCE
-Protect interests- (support of vital national
interests with defined objectives
-Sufficient strength to fight/win war
-Have support of US people
-Last resort
DETERMING FORCE FACTORS
-Should be threat driven (respond to threats)
-"1&1/2 war readiness"- should be able/ready
to fight and win one major war and still have
enough reserves to fight a smaller battle
-Investments help defend and deter
Chapter 14: Policy Evaluation
-Policy evaluation is learning about the
consequences of public policy
-Policy evaluation research is the objective,
systematic, empirical examination of the effects of
policy goals
Impact of policy is measured through:
• target group
• impact on group other than the target group
• future
• direct costs
• indirect costs
-Everything pertaining to policy has to be measured
both symbolically and tangibly
- Politics used to be: Who gets what, when and how
- Politics has become: who feels what, when and
how
Ways government agencies review policies:
• hearings and reports
• site visits
• comparison with professional standards
• evaluation of complaints
What government can do about evaluations:
-Must weigh cost against benefits
-Comparing what has happened with the
policy against what would have happened
with out it
-Comparison between areas with the policy to
that without the policy
Experimental policy research:
- Some believe that experimenting with policy
idea is best to do before implementing, but this
beings about some serious questions:
• Are programs predisposed to produce specific
results?
• People behave differently when they know
they are being watched: how effective is the
experiment taking this into account?
3) Small group experiments may produce
different results than when introduced to a
larger participating audience.
4) Politics play a role in what is studied and what
policies are implemented: People can interpret
findings differently and often times research is
politically motivated.
Why evaluations fail:
• Goals are hard to define
• Government agencies are prone to try to show
positive impact and don't want to find evidence
that shows otherwise
• Studies require time, money and man power
that is not available
How do they explain negative findings
• Effects are long range and hard to measure
• Effects are subtle and hard to measure
• Research is bias and that causes true effects to
be hard to find
Limits of public policy:
1) some problems do not have solutions
2) expectations set are hard to achieve
3) to solve problems of one group may cause
problems for another
4) some problems have more than one cause
5) some policies are more costly than the
problems
6) political system is not structured for rational
decision making