Transcript Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
How do you get a dog to salivate when he hears a bell?
Pavlov's Dog
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning:
Associating a a
natural stimulus neutral stimulus
natural stimulus
produces a predictable response –
neutral stimulus
does not produces any particular response
–
and
Classical Conditioning
Application of Classical Conditioning
; Psychologists use:
Unconditioned stimulus
(UCS)
produces an
unconditioned response
(UCR)
– (natural stimulus) that at the same time as a . . .
Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(CS) – (
once-neutral stimulus) producing the same response, called a
conditioned response
(CR) after several repetitions
More realistic example
Getting dental work done (unconditioned stimulus) hurts (unconditioned response) Eventually the sound of the dentist’s drill (conditioned stimulus) causes anxiety, fear, or pain (conditioned response)
Generalization/Discrimination
You may either
generalize
: respond the same to all drill sounds (similar stimuli), or
Discriminate
: If you learn to respond only to dental drill sounds (distinct stimuli)
Extinction
If the conditioned stimulus is NOT followed by the same unconditioned stimulus It will result in
extinction
and the conditioned response will disappear
Operant Conditioning
Learning from consequences of behavior The behavior is either
reinforced
(increases) or
punished
(decreases)
Reinforcement
Reinforcement
increases
repeated – stimulus or event that the likelihood a behavior will be Example: to get a dog to shake hands, you must give it a treat (reinforcement) every time it raises its paw
Reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer
– stimulus that satisfies a biological need (food or water)
Secondary Reinforcer
– stimulus like money that gives a reward by being linked with a primary reinforcer (food)
1.
2.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed Ratio
– reinforcement after a fixed number of responses (paid after every 10 pizzas made)
Variable Ratio
varying number of responses (playing a slot machine) – reinforcement after
Schedules of Reinforcement
3. Fixed Interval
– reinforcement of first response after a fixed amount of time (picking up your paycheck after 2 weeks)
4. Variable Interval
signal) – reinforcement of first response after varying amounts of time (calling a friend but getting a busy
Variable reinforcers are more resistant to extinction than fixed reinforcers
Shaping
A process of achieving a desired behavior by rewarding similar behaviors until the desired behavior is reached Example: To get a dog to lie down and roll over, you must reward each act until the desired trick is learned
Negative Reinforcement
A behavior increases by removing or preventing a painful stimulus
Example: you take an aspirin to relieve a headache – the headache is a negative reinforcer to taking aspirin (aspirin taking increases)
Punishment
An unpleasant consequence decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced it
Example: Yelling “NO!!” every time a child gets close to the fire will stop the unsafe behavior
Can produce unwanted side effects:
-Rage -Aggression -Fear
Social Learning
Altering behavior by observing and imitating the behavior of others
Social Learning
Cognitive Learning
by mental processes – – – altering behavior
Latent Learning
– learning or remembering details without intending to (seeing the same things on a regular driving route)
Learned helplessness
–repeated attempts to control a situation fail, you feel helpless (cannot change a situation, cannot escape punishment – often leads to depression)
Social Learning
Modeling
– learning by imitating others
Social Learning
Behavior Modification
– systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings Examples: – Use classical conditioning to overcome fears – Operant conditioning using later control token economies by reinforcing desired behaviors by giving “tokens” that can be exchanged for rewards – Social learning through personal systems of rewards and punishments to create self-
Group Activity
In groups of 3, read the two behaviors you are given Decide what general kind of conditioning they describe (Classical or Operant) and if operant, Determine what specific kind of operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment) Explain the example and your answers to the class Take notes on all examples given (they will be on the test)
Example 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Group Activity
Type of Conditioning Notes, comments
Memory
Memory – storage and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced
Processes of Memory
1.
Encoding
– transforming information so the nervous system can process it
F A C E Can encode by: Seeing the letters Hearing them spoken or Making a connection “face”
Processes of Memory
2.
3.
Storage
– maintaining information over time (depends on how much effort was put into encoding the information)
Retrieval
– information is brought to mind from storage (depends on how efficiently it was encoded and stored)
3 Stages of Memory
1. Sensory memory
storage immediately following a sensory input – brief memory
7 X B 1 L 7 V 5 F 3 W 5
Lasts only a fraction of a second
3 Stages of Memory
2. Short-term memory
– memory of about 7 items, lasts about 20 seconds
Lasts longer if repeated Chunking – grouping items to make them easier to remember Primacy-Recency Effect
3 Stages of Memory
3.
Long-term memory
– storage of information over extended periods of time I before e except after c
Semantic memory – knowledge of language – rules, words, meanings Episodic memory your life – memories of Declarative memory retrieved as needed – information a 2+ b 2 =c 2 Procedural memory – learned skills, does not need conscious recollection
Retrieving Information
Recognition
object, or situation you have experienced before – the retrieval of an idea, – Recognizing songs or instruments – Recognizing answers on a multiple choice test
Retrieving Information
Recall
previously learned material. Influenced by: – active reconstruction of – – – –
Reconstructive process
– altering or distorting our memories (“selective memory”)
Confabulation
– filling in memory gaps with information/experiences that were not there
Schemas
– conceptual frameworks we use to make sense of the world
Eidetic memory
– a photographic memory
Relearning/Forgetting
Relearning
– Can relearn previously learned information with less work (reciting a nursery rhyme or poem from your childhood)
Forgetting
–
Decay – fading away of memory over time
Older memories remain (can be recovered through hypnosis, meditation, brain stimulation)
– –
Interference – blockage of memory by prior or later memories Amnesia – loss of memory from a blow to the head or infant amnesia (lack of early memories)
Improving Memory
Elaborate Rehearsal
information to material that is already known – linking of new – Associate new information with past events, relationships, feelings – Learn new information in small bits instead of all at once (don’t cram)
Improving Memory
Mnemonic Devices
– Using associations to memorize and retrieve information – Acrostics (Queen of Hearts eats raspberry cream tarts) – Use mental pictures to learn – making up words, stories, etc. to remember
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal ( spacing effect ) is better than practicing all at once. Robert Frost’s poem could be memorized with fair ease if spread over time.
Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. Try to remember the numbers below 1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 If you are well versed with American history, chunk the numbers together and see if you can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
Rehearsal
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.
!
Using only your notes, on a clean sheet of paper, list the following:
The 3 Processes of Memory The 3 Stages of Memory The 4 kinds of long term memory The 4 things that influence our recall The definition of mnemonic devices
Psychological Testing
Test Reliability of a test to give the same results under similar circumstances
–
– ability Do you score about the same when retaken?
– –
Do different people give you the same score?
Do you do about the same on each section of the test?
Psychological Testing
Test Validity – ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
–
Does the test accurately predict performance?
Psychological Testing
Standardization way each time – test must be given the same The test must establish an average score ( norm ) of a large, well defined, group of people Norm – standard of comparison for test results
Psychological Testing
Questions to ask when getting a score
–
Would you score the same if you took the test again?
– –
Does the score reflect your knowledge of the subject?
Does your score compare fairly with other students who took the test?
Intelligence Testing
Intelligence
– – –
The ability to acquire new ideas and new behavior and to adapt to new situations Or The ability to do well on intelligence tests and in school
Theories of Intelligence
In groups of 4-5 read about the theory of intelligence on your card in Section 2 of Chapter 13 (p. 349-352)
Summarize the main features of the theory
Present them to the class who will complete a chart in their notes on the theories
Theories of Intelligence
Theory Main Features Issus, Criticisms
Spearman Thurstone Gardner Sternberg Emotional Intelligence
Intelligence Tests
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (1973)
– – –
Children tested one at a time Define words, draw pictures, explain events in daily life Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Mental Age/Chronological Age X 100
Intelligence Tests
Wechsler Tests (1981)
– – – –
Tests for adults and children One overall score, plus Percentile scores in several areas (vocabulary, math, picture arrangement) More detailed picture of individual’s strengths and weaknesses Percentile – percent of people taking the test who scored lower than your score
Intelligence Tests
You should complete these questions in 60 seconds or less!
– 1.Two ducks and two dogs have a total of
fourteen legs. True False
– 2.A pie can be cut into more than seven pieces by
making four diameter cuts. True False
– 3.Two of the following numbers add up to
thirteen.
1, 6, 3, 5, 11 True False
Personality Testing
Personality Tests – assess personality characteristics and identify problems –
Objective tests
–
limited or forced-choice format Used to study personality characteristics
–
Projective tests
–
unstructured Test-taker can respond freely with their own interpretation of various stimuli
Personality Testing
Objective Test Examples: –
MMPI
(Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory)
567 true-false questions
Used to assess major patterns of personality and extreme emotional disorders
Usually given with other tests or interviews
MMPI
1. I like mechanics magazines 2. I have a good appetite 3. I wake up fresh & rested most mornings 4. I think I would like the work of a librarian 5. I am easily awakened by noise 6. I like to read newspaper articles on crime 7. My hands and feet are usually warm enough
Personality Testing
Objective Test Examples: –
CPI
(California Psychological Inventory)
true-false questions
Measures traits such as responsibility, self control, and tolerance
Used to predict adjustment to stress, leadership, and job success Usually follow-up test with counseling or discussion with a psychologist
Personality Testing
Objective Test Examples: –
Myers-Briggs Test
Characterizes personality on four different scales
Shows test takers how they relate to others and how others relate to them
Personality Testing
Projective Test Examples: –
Rorschach Inkblot Test
Inkblot designs are shown to the test-taker who says what he/she sees
Reveals aspects of the person’s personality Results often depend on the psychologist’s expectations
Rorschach Test
Rorschach Test
Personality Testing
Projective Test Examples: –
TAT
(Thematic Apperception Test)
Pictures of vague but suggestive situations
Subjects are asked to tell a story about the picture
Used to assess personality problems of the test-taker