Transcript Afstandsleren bekeken vanuit de praktijk van het hoger

The design and development of
learning materials
Prof. dr. Martin Valcke
Workshop Innovative teaching and Learning
Strategies in Higher Education
Maputo 4-6 August, 2009
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Structure
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Introductory activity
Instructional design: decision tree
Embedded support devices
Structure of DE materials: principles
Overall models in DE learning
materials
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Conclusions
• Distance education inherits basic
characteristics of traditional
instructional approaches.
• Distance education imposes
« explicit » planning en
« consistency »
• ESD and structure are key decisions
• Imposition of a house style
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• Micro-, mesoand macro-decisions
Introductory Activity
• Small group activity
• Imagine you are responsible for
writing a manual for a Swatch watch
in Vietnam.
• Try to think about critical topics you
will consider when developing the
little manual.
• Structure your ideas.
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...
...
...
...
...
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...
Did you think about?
• What is the target audience: adults, teenagers, children?
• Use of pictures, photo’s, drawings, schemes, … instead
of written language.
• Reflections about ‘what’ you were about to tackle in the
users manual (objectives).
• How you would structure the users manual: key words
(panel, battery, setting time and alarms), manipulation of
the watch, a story, error messages, …)?
• Multiple languages if written language is used.
• Use of colours, symbols, …
• What if the users manual is lost?
• Operational instructions: do this and do that.
• How much time can you expect people to use the
manual?
• …
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Wrapping up: decision tree
target audience
language used
objectives
textual/non-textual
elements
activities
structuring
principles
layout of users
manual
timing
test users
...
anticipating
problems/question
s
texting/evaluation
usersmanual
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target audience
language used
objectives
activities
textual/non-textual
elements
timing
anticipating
problems/question
s
Instructional
Design
structuring
principles
layout of users
manual
evaluation of
users
evaluation of users
manual
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Instructional design
• Different decisions trees
• Different models
• IDI-model (Northern American consortium of
universities): “Consortium for Instructional
Development and Technology“.
IDI ~‘Instructional Development Institute’
• Focus on subpart in model
• Later full model
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Instructional design
definition
Step 1
define the problem
- state needs
- state priorities
- formulate the problem
Step 2
analyse environment/context
- who is involved
- conditions
- existing sources
Step 3
Organise the work
- task
- responsibilities
- time planning
development
Step 5
specify methods
Step 6
construct prototypes
- for learning
- for instructional-activities
- for media
-instruction-materials
- evaluation-instruments
Step 7
test prototypes
Step 8
analyse results
Step 9
revise / implement
- test prototypes
- collect evaluation data
- related to objectives
- methods
- evaluation methods
- revise
- decide
- execute
Step 4
state objectives
- final objectives
- intermediate objectives
evaluation
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Content of learning materials
• Task: take a manual from a traditional
instructional setting.
• What is the content of the package;
what « types » of content can we
distinguish?
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Content
BASIC CONTENT
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Additional elements:
• Exercices
• Examples
• Illustrations
• Questions
• ...
Content +
• Why do we add the extra elements?
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Content in distance education
• Same manual/handbook
• But now there is NO TEACHER
• Student is alone sitting in front of his
handboek/manual
• What is missing in his/her learning
environment
• Write on a sheet of paper
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examples
structure
tasks
questions
Content page
illustration
graphics
summary
test
exercise
Advance organizer
feedback
Study advice
keyword
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structure
tasks
Embedded support devices
Content page
examples
• Extra elements: ‘embedded support
graphics
devices’ (ESD).
keyword
• Lockwood (1992):
‘activities’ to refer
questions
Advance organizer
test
to their basic role as ‘catalysts’ of
exercise
student
involvement
Study advice
feedback
illustration
• The basic content is derived from the
domain specific knowledge base.
summary
• The ESD 17are added to support the
Embedded support devices
• ESD: a wide variety of add-on, such as
questions (pre- and post-), content
pages, illustrations, examples,
activities, tasks, tests, examples,
schemes, cases, etc.
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Embedded support devices
• Basic functions and effects of ESD (Valcke,
Martens, Poelmans and Daal,1993):
– orienting ESD: learning objectives, references to other
learning materials, references to required prior
knowledge, etc.
– processing ESD: indexes, additional learning materials,
advance organizers, illustrations, glossaries,
introductions, study advice, summaries, tables,
examples, etc.
– testing ESD: self-test items, exercise items, answers
and feedback.
• ESD up to 45% of the learning materials
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ESD: list
Advance organisers
•Ausubel 1960
•Activation of prior knowledge
Examples:
In the chapter about ‘cognitive learning approaches’ in the
course on instructional science students start by playing a
little game. They are asked to learn by heart 10 different
words. After one minute they have to take a sheet of paper
and write down the words they can remember.
Next, they have are given the task to write down HOW
they memorised the list of words. When a lecturer puts
together the approaches of 10 different students he gets a
very nice overview of theoretical and empirical knowledge
acquisition processes as defined by cognitive psychologists
BUT now in the wording
of the students themselves.
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ESD: list
Introduction
• Introductions orientation as to what, how and why
the materials are presented
• other comparable ESD: content page, scheme,
objectives, assessment criteria, …
Summary
• Provide summary or let students develop
summary
• Incomplete summary
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ESD: list
Content pages
• Give content page
• Ask students to build content page, overviews,
scheme or mind-maps
Timing
• How much time on average should be spent on
specific tasks, sets of learning materials
• Support individual study planning (time
management)
• Realistic time frames
• Study load of courses.
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ESD: list
Schemes
• Structure scheme, a process scheme, a classification
scheme, an incomplete scheme, a mind-map, …
Recapitulation section – wrap up section
• Students go backwards and forwards in the overall
structure of the content
Dialogue
• Talk to the student in a written way:
• What would you do if you were in this position?
• Could you help me here or will you leave me behind
with this problem?
• Could you think about three examples for me, please. I
will need them23further on in the text.
ESD: list
Key words
• Left column with ‘key words’
• Role of key words: structure, important basic concepts,
index to the text
• Statements about prior knowledge
• Be explicit about assumptions about prior knowledge
• Especially when we introduce complex problem settings
(real life cases, problems, …). Developers can no longer
control the overall situation.
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ESD: list
Objectives
• Objectives at the start
• To orient their further reading activities, the way
they process the activities,
• Students are pragmatic
Activities
• Questions, tasks, problems
• Feedback (structural feedback or solution?)
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ESD: list
Feedback
• Questions, tasks, activities, assessment
provisions, … bring forward the idea
about giving students adequate
feedback.
• Immediate or delayed feedback.
• Learners should learn to judge
themselves
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• Gradual development
of self-reflection
ESD: list
Questions
• Continuous active involvement of the students
• Pre- and post-questions
Self-assessment
• Students are invited to check mastery objectives
• Examples of final assessment
• Students study in a assessment-driven way
• The test as a relevant ‘learning’ experience
• Examples of a final test ~ representative for real
final test
• Feedback: redirect to relevant learning section
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ESD: list
Enrichment (facultative activities)
• Resources for learning.
• Beyond the body of knowledge needed
to attain the objectives
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ESD: list
Examples
• Examples translate abstract concepts,
features, relations, structures in real
world terms and experiences
• Link new abstract knowledge to
student experiences
• Role examples: learn by heart?
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ESD: list
Study advice
• How to deal with your learning
package?
• Examples of how to go ahead, to plan
their work, to check their progress, to
involve colleagues, contact staff,
support people, ..
• Based on 30real life student comments
ESD: list
Self-reflection
• Self reflection as a pro-active activity:
how will we proceed?
• Or as a retro-active process: how did I
deal with this task, content.
• Development of meta-cognitive
knowledge skills.
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Design of a « house style »
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Choice for a set of ESD ~house style
Students prefer consistent materials
Internal consistency
Quality!!
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Develop your own house style
• Take your learning materials
• Redevelop 2-3 pages
• Make an outline of how you would
enrich the materials with ESD
• Make a difference between local ESD
and ESD at chapter/unit level
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Basic content
• Structure?
• How can we structure the basic
content?
How is it structured in your
handbooks?
• Can you think of alternative
approaches?
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Basic content: structure
• Scientific content
• Procedure (e.g. Law, Scientific
research, chemical process,, ...)
• Cases
• Problems
• Time line
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Basic content: structure
• Book: chapters
• Learning book: learning units, themes,
...
• What is best structure?
• What is the structure in your manuals
and handbooks? What is the basis of
this structure?
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Basic content: structure
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Structure: Problems
• Problems
• Problem-based learning: starting point is a real-life
problem:
• “A bee-keeper of 65 strolls on a nice morning in May
through his garden. In front of his hives, he suddenly
stumbles and falls against one hive that tumbles upside
down. The bees are furious and attack. The man is able to
get away, but heavily bitten, he falls in the kitchen after
closing the kitchen door. His wife alarms the doctor who
arrives within 5 minutes and sees how the man is getting
unconscious.”
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Structure: problems
• The student read this text and follow a 6-step procedure.
This procedure is mostly supported by a group
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Analyse the situation
Define the problem
Apply the knowledge readily available
Define learning objectives
Look for additional knowledge to apply in view of the learning
objectives
– Report about the results
• Study process supported with in-built tutor
• Assessment based on problem resolution (feedback) +
tests that assesses mastery declarative knowledge
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Structure: Cases
• Case-based Harvard University
• Originally economics and business sciences
• Now in wide variety of domains (medicine,
psychology, ..).
• Gradual build-up
• Three dimensions:
– Conceptual dimension
– Procedural dimension
– Information dimension
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Structure: cases
• All learning starts with a wellprepared case:
• These cases can be small or very
elaborated.
• Students get a resource package that
can be very detailed or rather empty as
it is expected that they look up the
resources themselves.
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Structure: cases
• The conceptual base can be considered ‘acquired’ or be
made available in a structured way.
• Case resolution can be an individual and/or a group
learning activity.
• Case resolution can be done in reality or away from
reality.
• Cases build upon real life.
• All data, examples, ‘living’ information is taken from
reality.
• There is no separate assessment/testing set up, next to
the final report that describes that case solution by the
student(s).
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Structure: Procedure
• In professional life, people build upon a variety
of procedures, methods, ways to practice their
profession. For instance: lawyers follow a strict
procedure when preparing a case; business
scientists follow specific procedure when they
screen a company, doctors follow diagnosing
procedures, psychologists apply listening skills,
teachers know how to ask questions, …
• Starting point: basic declarative knowledge
• Clear development of a task list, step-by-step
guide, plan
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Overall models in DE learning
materials
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Learning unit model
Textbook – working book model
Case study model
Procedural model
Virtual companies
Thesis model
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Examples
• See package
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Conclusions
• Distance education inherits basic
characteristics of traditional
instructional approaches.
• Distance education imposes
« explicit » planning en
« consistency »
• ESD and structure are key decisions
• Imposition of a house style
46
• Micro-, mesoand macro-decisions
The design and development of
learning materials
Prof. dr. Martin Valcke
Workshop Innovative teaching and Learning
Strategies in Higher Education
Maputo 4-6 August, 2009
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