Transcript 从另一个角度看教材

从另一个角度看教材
龚亚夫
Overview
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Task-based language teaching
Curriculum goals and objectives
Task types
Teaching vocabulary
Critical thinking and reading
Grammar teaching
Traditionally…
Curriculum designers and materials writers
took as their point of departure the question,
What are the grammatical, phonological,
and lexical items to be taught? In other
words, selection of classroom activities
was driven by curriculum goals specified in
phonological, morphosyntactic, and lexical
terms.
Nunan (1991)
Why task-based language teaching?
Target task rationale: What is it that learners
potentially or actually need to do with the target
language?
Psycholinguistic rationale: What are the
psycholinguistic mechanisms underlying second
language acquisition, and how can these be
activated in the classroom?
Nunan (1991)
Socio-cultural rationale: learning arises not through
interaction but in interaction
Lantolf (2000)
Why task-based language teaching?
 Tasks goals enable the program planner and
materials writer to provide explicit links between
the task and the broader curriculum it is
designed to serve. 体现课程目标
 The value of tasks is that they provide a purpose
for the activity which goes beyond the practice
of language for its own sake.
Nunan (1991)
Psycholinguistic perspective
 A task is a device that guides learners to engage
in certain types of information-processing that
are believed to be important for effective
language use and /or for language acquisition
from some theoretical standpoint.
 Tasks are seen as the external means by which
we can influence the mental computations that
learners make. These computations determine
how effectively they communicate and how they
acquire language.
Ellis (2000, 2003)
Why task-based language teaching?
Mental computation:
询问、确认、分类、推断、区分、预测、总
结、创造、读图、反思、协商……
以往的功能结构方法是从语言系统的角度设
计课程与教学内容，任务型语言教学从学生
学习的角度来思考
Tradition and the trend
Tradition
Grammatical,
phonological and
lexical items to be
taught. The
specification of these
items set the
parameters for the
selection of classroom
activities
Trend
Tasks are
conceptualized in
terms of the
curriculum goals,
input data and
activities or
procedures which the
learners undertake in
the completion of the
tasks
Multidimensional curriculum
 The objectives of NEC: linguistic knowledge,
language skills, cultural awareness, learning
strategies and motivation and affective factors
 Student participation, development of critical
thinking skills, problem-solving, interpersonal
communication skills as well as cooperation
Third generation tasks
With third generation tasks, the scope widens
further. In addition to the communicative and
cognitive strategies, they also aim to develop the
personality of students through the experience of
learning a foreign language. They go further than
the previous tasks in aiming to fulfill wider
educational objectives, such as enhancing
motivation and awareness, developing creativity
and interpersonal skills…
Littlewood (2001)
Task types:Cognitive
Classifying: Putting things that are similar together in the
groups
Predicting: Predicting what is to come in the learning process
Inducing: Looking for patterns and regularities
Example: Study a conversation and discover the
rule for forming the simple past tense
Taking notes: Writing down the important information in a
text in your own words
Concept mapping: Showing the main ideas in a text in the
form of a map
Inferencing: Using what you know to learn something new
Discriminating: Distinguishing between the main idea and
the supporting information
Diagramming: Using information from a text to label a
diagram
Task types: Interpersonal
Co-operating: Sharing ideas and learning with
other students
Example: Work in small groups to
read a text and complete a table
Role Playing: Predicting to be somebody else
and using the language for the
situation you are in
Example: You are a reporter. Use
the information from the reading
to interview the writer
Task types: Linguistic
Conversational patterns: Using expressions to start
conversations and keep them going.
Example: Match formulaic expressions
to situations
Practicing: Doing controlled exercise to improve knowledge
and skills
Using context: Using the surrounding context to guess the
meaning of an unknown word, phrase, or concept
Summarizing: Picking out and presenting the major points
in a text in summary form
Selective listening: Listening for key information without
trying to understand every word
Skimming: Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text
Task types:Affective
Personalizing: Learners share their own opinions,
feelings and ideas about a subject.
Example: Read a letter from a
friend in need and give advice
Self-evaluating: Thinking about how well you did
on a learning task, and rating
yourself on a scale
Reflecting: Thinking about ways you learn best
Task types: Creative
Brainstorming: Thinking of as many new
words and ideas as one can
Example: Work in groups and
think of a many occupations as you
can
Nunan (2004)
Assessment
Criterion-referenced assessment:
Criterion-referencing occurs when learner’s
performance is described in relation to an
explicit stated standards; e.g. a person’s ability
may be reported in terms of a ‘can-do’ statement
describing the kinds of tasks he or she can
perform using the target language.
Brindley (2001)
Task and performance
 It seems that task accomplishment is the
ultimate focus for evaluating human
performance. It follows that L2
performance assessment and task-based
approaches to language teaching and
assessment will likely share a greatly deal
of theoretical and practical common ground.
Norris (1998 )
Tasks
The language testers have increasingly
recognized the value of tasks for assessing
learners’ capacity to communicate in an L2.
--Has a favourable washback effect;
--Enables assessment to be more easily integrated
into the learning process;
--Provides learners with useful diagnostic
feedback on progress and achievement
Ellis (2003)
Task-based testing
Task-based testing is seen as a way of
achieving a close correlation between test
performance; i.e. what the testee does
during the test, and the criterion
performance, i.e. what the testee has to do
in the real world, and thus ensuring the
validity of the assessment.
Ellis (2003)
如何设计教案与任务
以行为动词来描述目标:
1 能力表现（performance),即教学目标应该列出
学习者需要能够做什么；
2 条件（condition），即能力表现的条件与环境；
3 标准（criterion），即目标应该描述学习者什么
样的表现是可以接受的。Nunan（2007）也认为，
在能力描述的标准中，目标通常包含三个组成部
分：一是能力表现或任务描述(performance or task
statement)。这一部分主要描述学习者能够做的事情。
二是对于语言能力表现或完成任务条件的描述。即在
何种情境下(circumstances)和条件下（conditions）
学生能完成这些任务。第三部分是对于完成任务标准
的描述。
范例
 在要求完成一个口语任务时，学习者要能对
一个英语为母语的人说出他/她的名字，地址
和电话号码，能拼出自己的名字、街道和城
市的名称，使得考试者能记录下来，达到
100%的准确。
 在一个真实的交际情境下，（条件），学生
将询问所购物品的价格（任务）。学生所说
的话可以使一个具有体谅心态的英语为本族
语的人可以理解（标准）。
Pre-task phase
 Three purposes:
---to serve to introduce new language that
learners can use while performing the
task;
---to mobilize existing linguistic resources;
---to ease processing load, and to push
learners to interpret tasks in more
demanding ways
Skehan (1998)
Pre-task phase
Non-task preparation activities
--- brain storming 大脑风暴
--- mind map 思维导图
Addressing linguistic demands of a task
--- Predicting, i.e. asking learners to brainstorm a list of
words related to the task title or topic
--- Planning/ strategic planning
Teaching vocabulary
 Readers need to work out which words belong
together and form units of meaning– a ‘phrasing’
or ‘chunking’ process. They also need to
recognize key words and phrases.
Exemplar-based system “ 以范例为基础的”
Rule-based system “以规则为基础的”
Skehan (1996); Mitchel &Martin (2004)
Multi-word units--“chunks of
language” , “lexical chunks”
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Collocations 习惯搭配
Phrasal verbs 常用短语
Sentence frames 句子结构
Social formulae 社交套话
Discourse markers 语段连接词
Multiword units
 The most fundamental guiding principle (for)
those who are anxious to be proficient in foreign
conversation… is this: Memorizing perfectly the
largest number of common and useful wordgroups!
Palmer (1925)
As a way of quickly developing fluency and of
picking up native-like expressions, groups of
words should be learned as units.
Nation (2003)
Language acquisition research
Lexico-semantic theory–
a net work of associations, a web-like structure
of interconnected links (Aitchison, 1987)
Connect the word with already known words,
the links is created, the learning takes place
(Sŏkmen ) 当词汇增加到一定程度时，头脑
就会建立一个系统，使词汇有机地组织起
来，以便提取--Creating word web
Promote a deep level of processing
--- Better learning takes place when a deeper
level of semantic processing is required
because the words are encoded with
elaboration
Craik & Lockhart (1972)
--- When students are asked to manipulate
words, relate them to other words and to
their own experiences, and then justify their
choices, these words associations are
reinforced.
Sŏkmen
Semantic feature analysis
Affective
With
wonder
surprise
+
astonish
+
amaze
+
Because Because So as to
unexpecte difficult to cause
d
believe
confusion
+
+
+
Classroom techniques and tasks
Create a range of 5-16 encounters with a
word in order for student to truly acquire it
 Dictionary work: Sŏkmen
 Semantic elaboration
 Meaning-focused input activities
 Deliberate learning activities
 Meaning-focused output activities
 Fluency activities
Critical thinking skills
Critical thinking brings conscious awareness,
skills, and standards to the process of observing,
analyzing, reasoning, evaluating, reading, and
communicating.
Mayfield (2007)
Critical thinking—
22 comprehension strategies
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Drawing conclusions
Understanding cause and effect
Making connections
Comparing view points
Evaluating ideas
Reading between the lines
Making judgments
22 comprehension strategies (cont.)
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Making comparisons
Interpreting meaning
Making inferences
Comparing characters
Reading a map
Interpreting graphs and charts
Making calculations
Examining reasons
22 comprehension strategies (cont.)
 Separating facts from opinion
 Identifying the main idea
 Organizing information
 Sequencing
 Summarizing
 Recalling details
 Synthesizing
Making judgments
Highlight the three pieces of information
in the text that you think everyone
should know:
Most important_________________
Second most important___________
Least important__________________
Developing alternative solutions
With a group, brainstorm three different
solutions to ..’s problem.
A __________________
B __________________
C ___________________
When you brainstorm, everyone contribute ideas.
Write down every idea. ….
Examining reasons
 Why do you think it’s necessary in this
experiment to collect…?
____________________________
 How do you think the author says to use…?
_____________________________
 Why do you think…?
____________________________
Consciousness-raising tasks (CR)
1 There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic
feature for focused attention
2 The learners are provided with data that illustrate
the targeted feature and they may also be
provided with an explicit rule describing or
explaining the feature.
3 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual
effort to understand the targeted feature.
4 learners may be optionally required to verbalize a
rule describing the grammatical structure.
Ellis (1991)
The post-task phase
Three major pedagogical goals:
--提供再做任务的机会（to provide an
opportunity for a repeat performance of the task）
--反思任务是怎样完成的（to encourage
reflection on how the task was performed）
--关注语言的形式（to encourage attention to
form）
Reflecting on the task
 Present a report on how they did the task and
what they decided or discovered – oral or
written
 Summary the outcome of the task
 Reflect or evaluate of their own performance
(fluency, complicity or accuracy)
 Metacognitive strategies 元认知策略
(planning, monitoring and evaluating)
The post-task phase
 Reviewing of learner errors反思错误
 Consciousness-raising tasks语法意识
 Production-practice activities操练活动
 Noticing activities 注意语言的准确
Reviewing of learner errors
 Teacher moves from group to group to listen and
note down the errors
 Address these errors with the whole class
 - can be written on the board
 - students can be invited to correct it
 - listen again and edit their own performance
 - teacher comments
Consciousness-raising tasks (CR)
 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual
effort to understand the targeted features 通过
思考理解语法用法
 Learners may be optionally required to
verbalize a rule describing the grammatical
structure 可以是学生口头表达
 To direct students to attend explicitly to a
specific form they used incorrectly or failed to
use at all in the main task补充不足
Production-practice activities
 Repetition 重复活动
 Substitution 替换练习
 Gapped sentences 填空练习
 Jumbled sentences 打乱的句子
 Transformation drills 变换句型
 Dialogues 对话
Consciousness-raising tasks
 There is an attempt to isolate a specific linguistic
feature for focused attention就某一语法现象单
独讲解
 The learners are provided with data that illustrate
the targeted feature or an explicit rule describing
or explaining the feature 给例子说明语法用法或
对语法详细描述
Consciousness-raising tasks
 The learners are expected to utilize intellectual
effort to understand the targeted features 通过思
考理解语法用法
 Learners may be optionally required to verbalize a
rule describing the grammatical structure 可以是
学生口头表达
 To direct students to attend explicitly to a specific
form they used incorrectly or failed to use at all in
the main task补充不足
Thanks!