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Infants, Children, and
Adolescents
Chapter 5
Physical
Development in
Infancy and
Toddlerhood
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Body Growth
 Gain 50% in height from birth to age
1; 75% by age 2
 Grow in spurts
 Gain “baby fat” until about 9 months,
then get slimmer
 Girls slightly shorter and lighter than
boys, some ethnic differences
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Growth Trends
Cephalocaudal
Proximodistal
 “Head to tail”
 Lower part of body
grows later than the
head
 “Near to far”
 Extremities grow
later than head,
chest, and trunk
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Growth
During
First Two
Years
Figure 5.1
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The Skull at Birth
Figure 5.3
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Brain Development
 Human brain has 100 to
200 billion neurons that
store/transmit information
 At birth, brain closest to
adult size than any other
physical structure
 Neurons send messages
by releasing chemicals
called neurotransmitters.
Figure 5.4
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Major Milestones of
Brain Development
Figure 5.5
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Methods for Measuring
Brain Functioning
Table 5.1
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Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging (fMRI) and
Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
Figure 5.7
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Regions
of the
Cerebral
Cortex
Figure 5.8
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Lateralization and Plasticity of
the Cerebral Cortex
Specialization of the left and right hemispheres of
the brain is called lateralization.

Left hemisphere: best at processing information in a
sequential, analytic way

Right hemisphere: best at processing information in a
holistic, integrative manner
In a highly plastic cerebral cortex, many areas are
not yet committed to one function; consequently,
the cortex has a high capacity for learning.
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Sensitive Periods in
Brain Development
 Early, extreme sensory deprivation results
in permanent brain damage and loss of
function.
 Babies born with cataracts in both eyes who
have corrective surgery within 4 to 6
months show rapid improvement in vision.
 The longer the surgery is postponed, the
less complete the recovery of visual skills.
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Brain Development in
Orphanage Children
 Children adopted from
Romanian orphanages before
age 6 months showed dramatic
cognitive and physical gains.
 Those adopted after 6 months
showed serious intellectual
deficits.
 The chronic stress of early,
deprived orphanage rearing
disrupts the brain’s ability to
manage stress, with long-term
consequences.
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Figure 5.9
Appropriate Stimulation
Experience-expectant growth

Ordinary experiences
“expected” by brain to grow
normally

Occurs early and naturally
Experience-dependent growth
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
Specific experience, varies
widely across cultures

Rushing early learning can
overwhelm young brains.
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Sleep Patterns
 Sleep moves to an adult-like
night–day schedule during the
first year.
 Sleep needs decline from 18
to 12 hours a day by age 2.
 Night wakings often increase
between the ages of 1½ and 2
years, and then decline.
 Affected by brain development
and social environment
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Cultural Variations in Infant
Sleeping Arrangements
 Cosleeping is the norm for 90% of the
world’s population.
 Cultural values of collectivism versus
individualism strongly influence infant
sleeping arrangements.
 Cosleeping is increasing in the United
States, perhaps because more mothers
are breastfeeding.
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Influences on Early Growth
Heredity
Nutrition
 Breast v. bottle feeding
 Malnutrition
Emotional well-being
 Problems can cause
failure to thrive.
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Benefits of Breastfeeding
 Correct fat–protein balance
 Nutritionally complete
 Promotes healthy growth patterns
 Disease protection
 Better jaw and tooth development
 Ensures digestibility
 Easier transition to solid food
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Are Chubby Babies at Risk
for Later Obesity?
Recent research shows a relationship between
rapid weight gain in infancy and later
obesity.
What to do?

Breastfeed for six months.

Avoid foods loaded with sugar, salt, and
saturated fats.

Promote physical exercise.

Limit TV viewing time.
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Malnutrition
Types






Consequences 


Marasmus
Kwashiorkor
Iron-deficiency anemia
Food insecurity
Physical symptoms
Growth and weight problems
Poor motor development
Learning, attention problems
Passivity, irritability, anxiety
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The Steps of
Classical Conditioning
Figure 5.10
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Operant Conditioning Terms
Reinforcer
Punishment
Increases probability Reduces probability
of behavior
of behavior
occurring again
occurring again
 Presenting
 Presenting desirable
unpleasant stimulus
stimulus
 Removing desirable
 Removing unpleasant
stimulus
stimulus
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Using Habituation
to Study Infants
Figure 5.11
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Imitation by
Human and
Chimpanzee
Newborns
Figure 5.12
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The Sequence of
Motor Development
Gross-motor development

Crawling, standing,
walking
Fine-motor development

Reaching and grasping
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Gross- and
Fine-Motor
Development
in the
First Two
Years
Table 5.2
Sources: Bayley 1969, 1993, 2005
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Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems
Increasingly complex
systems of action with
each skill
Four factors in each new
skill:
1. CNS development
2. Body’s movement
capacity
3. Child’s goals
4. Environmental supports
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Cultural Variations in
Motor Development
Home environments and infant rearing
practices affect motor development.

Some cultures discourage rapid motor
progress.

Kipsigis of Kenya and the West Indians of
Jamaica teach early motor skills.

Western parents consider crawling and
“tummy time” essential, but not all cultures do.
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Milestones of Reaching
Figure 5.14
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Bowel and Bladder Control
Toilet training is best delayed
until the months following
the second birthday.
Effective training techniques
include


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
establishing regular toileting
routines.
using gentle encouragement.
praising children for their
effort .
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Developments in Hearing
4–7 months Sense of musical phrasing
“Screen out” sounds from non6–8 months native languages
7–9 months
Divide the speech stream into wordlike units
10 months
Can detect words that start with
weak syllables
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Improvements in Vision
Brain development helps
infants reach adult
levels of vision skills.
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2–4 months:
focus and color vision
6 months:
acuity, scanning, and
tracking
6–7 months:
depth perception
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Steps in Depth Perception
Birth–
1 month
Sensitivity to motion cues
2–3
months
Sensitivity to binocular cues
6–7
months
Sensitivity to pictorial cues
Wariness of heights
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Steps in Pattern Perception
3 weeks
 Poor contrast sensitivity
 Prefer large simple patterns
 Can detect fine-grained detail
2 months
 Prefer complex patterns
 Can detect patterns even if
4 months
boundaries are not really present
12
months
 Can detect objects if two-thirds
of drawing is missing
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Appearance of Checkerboards to
Very Young Infants
Figure 5.17
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Subjective
Boundaries in
Visual Patterns
Figure 5.18
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Early Face
Perception
Figure 5.19
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