Transcript A Quick Primer on Rhetorical Devices

A Quick Primer on
Rhetorical Devices
September 7th, 2007
What’s a Simile?
Similes compare two dissimilar objects,
concepts, etc., in order to suggest an
unexpected likeness between the two.
Similes can often be distinguished by the
presence of one of two code words, “like” and
“as.”
For Example…
Two Dissimilar
Subjects
Blanket
Snow
Simile Time!
 If we wish to make a
comparison between
the way a blanket
covers a bed and the
way the snow covers
the group, we should
use a simile.
 How can we use a
simile to compare the
two?
The Finished Product!
The snow is like a
thick blanket on
the ground.
Notice the key
presence of “like.”
What About Metaphors?
If you choose to use
a metaphor
instead, remember
that you aren’t
simply comparing
the snow to the
blanket – you’re
equating the two!
For Example…
 Rather than claiming
that the snow is like the
blanket, simply claim
that the two are the
same.
 “The snow is a blanket
on the earth.”
 Is the snow actually a
blanket? No! However,
the image the equation
creates is a vividly
descriptive one – and
vivid images are
excellent!
I Need Direction
 An easy way to
remember the difference
between similes and
metaphors is to
determine whether the
writer is trying to be
direct.
 “The snow is a blanket”
is direct; the comparison
in “the snow is like a
blanket” is by definition
more abstract than the
equation.
A Very Thin Line
At their core,
metaphors and
similes aren’t
separated by much;
in the previous
example, the
presence of the word
“like” is all that
distinguishes one
from the other
Please Don’t Take My Sunshine Away
 “You are my sunshine”
 “You are like the sun”
 Which is the metaphor?
 How can you tell that
the Langston Hughes
quote contains a
metaphor?
In That Case, What the Heck
is an Analogy?
 Think of analogies as similes or metaphors on
steroids – the Barry Bonds of rhetorical devices!
 Analogies allow writers to help readers understand
difficult issues or concepts by comparing them to
familiar ones.
 As a result, similarity between the difficult concept
and its familiar counterpart is crucial; if there is no
similarity, the comparison is useless for rhetorical
purposes.
It’s Tough to Hit a Moving Target
Analogies can be separated into two parts
Target – the unknown idea or object; we’re
trying to explain it, or at least make it clear
Source – the familiar idea or object; we use
sources to shed light on the more complicated
target
The Great and the Small
There is a famous
analogy between our
solar system and atomic
structure
 ^ Target
< Source
Identify Your Source!
The solar system works
as a source because it is
more familiar and
tangible
Moreover, the two
share a common
structural property –
objects revolving
around a center
The Analogy Itself
“Think of an atom as a
miniature solar system;
the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in
the same way that
planets orbit our Sun.”
It’s a simple but effective
comparison.
Dr. Frankenstein
Let’s turn our attention to personification,
another type of figurative language
Personification involves giving the qualities of
animals or persons to inanimate objects – to
animate the nonliving, a la Dr. Frankenstein
(although I supposed he was reanimating the
monster)
Once again, figurative language is used to bring
images, concepts, or objects to life!
Emily Dickinson’s “The Train”
 I like to see it lap the miles,
And lick the valleys up,
And stop to feed itself at tanks;
And then, prodigious, step
 Around a pile of mountains,
And, supercilious, peer
In shanties by the sides of roads;
And then a quarry pare
 To fit its sides, and crawl between,
Complaining all the while
In horrid, hooting stanza;
Then chase itself down hill
 And neigh like Boanerges;
Then, punctual as a start its own,
Stop-docile and omnipotentA stable door.
 Can you spot examples of
personification?
 Remember to look for
human emotions, human
actions, etc.
Animating the Train







Lap the miles;
Lick the valleys up;
Stop to feed itself at tanks;
And then, prodigious, step around…
And, supercilious, peer in shanties…
Crawl between [the quarry walls];
Complaining all the while in horrid,
hooting stanza;
 Then chase itself down hill
 Dickinson gives the train
 And neigh like Boanerges;
personality, and allows her
 So on and so forth…
readers to think of it almost
as an independent entity –
an interesting linguistic
choice.
Allusions
Allusions have a double meaning; while the
words have a primary significance, they also
recall something else that the reader will find
familiar – a person or figure, a place, an event,
etc.
While allusions function symbolically, it’s
important to understand both the primary and
secondary meanings.
Visual References
While this is
clearly
Keanu
Reeves, can
you spot
the Biblical
imagery?
Literary Allusions
 T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” is incredibly dense; it’s
almost impossible to understand the first time you
read it because it’s so packed with difficult allusions.
 While it’s a British text, Eliot was one of the forefathers
of the Modernist movement – a literary phenomenon
that dramatically reshaped American literature after
the First World War. In other words, you won’t read it
in this class, but it is important! (You can expect to
read it many, many times…I’ve done four reports on it
over the past five years, and it never gets old once you
understand it.)
Don’t Believe Me?
Try figuring this passage out:
What are the roots that clutch, what branches grow
Out of this stony rubbish? Son of man,
You cannot say, or guess, for you know only
A heap of broken images, where the sun beats,
And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief,
And the dry stone no sound of water.
OK…What Did That Mean?
While the poem is “about” many things, it functions as an angry
protest of post-WWI life in Britain, and London in particular.
Eliot looked at his society and saw a ruined country, and overindustrialized and overpopulated nation devoid of beauty and
faith.
He paints London as cultural and spiritual “waste land” filled with
people leading vacant, meaningless lives.
Watch how Eliot tethers his observations on the degeneration of
society to references to religion (the poem contains many
allusions to religious texts, both Western and Eastern in origin);
by doing so, he provides a contrast to the present day that
highlights the decay of his nation.
Wiki Goodness
Adapted from Wikipedia (not always the most reputable of
sources, but I can vouch for this, and the writer sums the
meaning up nicely):
The narrator is referred to as the "Son of man" – a title used
for Ezekiel, who God called upon to warn Israel to repent
of their idolatry. The deity eventually tells Ezekiel that
Israel will not change; therefore, their altars will be
desolate, images broken, and their cities will lay in waste.
While this is what the poem is alluding to, the images the
words conjure prompt readers to picture the ruin of postwar Britain – and shudder.
That Just About Covers It…
Why do writers want to use figurative
language, or figures of speech?
Because they’re based on comparisons, figures
of speech can make something that’s difficult
to understand seem more familiar,
interesting, and real – a useful trick for any
essay, persuasive or otherwise.
Rhetorical Questions
These questions aren’t asked with the intention of
eliciting a response
Rather, they’re there to cause the audience to question
the other side – and, in turn, accept yours
They attract the audience’s attention and gain interest
because the audience supplies the answer!
“How many times do I have to tell you to do your
homework?” does not invite a response.
However, the “puppy” example functions better as a
rhetorical device
• Imagine the debate is about the best way to treat a wounded
animal, and the other side argues that it’s best to leave the
animal to heal on its own.
Quotes
Writers who smoothly incorporate the words of
others into their works will seem more credible
If an author is arguing over an issue that confuses you,
and he or she offers quotes from individuals who seem
qualified to understand the matter, you’ll be more
likely to believe them
• One note: If the author cites people that seem unqualified to
comment on the issue at hand, the quotes can undermine
their credibility!
Deductive Reasoning and Syllogism
 Deduction is the process of moving from a formally stated
premise (or premises) to a logically valid conclusion.
This means that writers must move from general descriptions to
specific or particular conclusions
The process allows writers to lead their audiences down a specific
rhetorical path – until they “logically” reach the same conclusion
as the author!
 Syllogism merely refers to the most basic form of this
process:
Start with a major and minor premise
Move logically from your premises to your conclusion
The “Billy” example works well.
Fallacies
These are fundamentally flawed arguments that
cannot be defended logically.
Instead of the “if p, then q” or “if not-p, then notq” style of argument, fallacies fall into a “if p, then
q…if not-q, then not-p” form – they’re backward!
In order to use a fallacy for maximum effect, a writer
must convince the audience that his argument is not
flawed, and that his illogic is actually logical.
“If we guillotine the king, then he will die.
Therefore, if we don't guillotine the king, then he
won't die.” – fallacyfiles.org
Equivocation!
This refers to instances when writers shift the
meaning of an important word in the middle of an
argument.
The reason that the distinction between “creative” and
“creativity” is important – one refers to something that
the artists can do, while the other dares them to do
something that they aren’t qualified to perform!
It’s a fairly sneaky way of making an argument or
charge – which is why it’s usually effective
Either/Or Fallacy
Simply put, this is when people ignore the
nuances of life – when they assume that
extremes are our only choices instead of
recognizing multiple possibilities.
“Someone is either good or evil.”
Do good people behave well at all times? Is an
evil person incapable of positive action?
Overgeneralization
Presenting situations as “all” or “none” usually
results in an invalid argument; there are
usually exceptions that need to be considered.
Overgeneralization saps an argument of its
effectiveness, so don’t use it!
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
This looks confusing, but it’s really simple!
It describes an attempt to prove causality
when there is none; the author states that a
second event is caused by a first because it
came afterward.
Remember: Something may have happened
after another event, but the first event
doesn’t necessarily cause the second.
Begging the Question
This term seems misleading, because no
question is actually being asked
It describes a controversial statement by a
writer that invites a skeptical reader to
question it; in other words, the author states
something that could be argued as though it
is an immutable fact!
Argument Ad Hominem
 Ad hominem refers to “attacks against the person.”
It’s an attempt by the writer to distract you from
the issue at hand by focusing instead on the
credibility of his or her opponent.
This technique is usually used by authors who
cannot win a debate based on the soundness or
logic of their position; it’s a last-gasp effort to
convince the reader to join their side, rather than
convince them that their side is the correct one.
Red Herrings
A red herring is fishy (har har har), and
almost identical to an argument ad hominem
The difference between the two lies in their
foci; the argument ad hominem switches
focus from subject to opponent, whereas the
red herring switches from one subject to
another.
Subordination and Coordination
 Subordination indicates that one clause (Clause A) is
more important than another (Clause B)
 See your smoking example – it’s fairly easy to spot
 Coordination, on the other hand, indicates that both
clauses are equally important or independent of one
another
 These can be recognized by the presence of
FANBOYS – the coordinating conjunctions For,
And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, or So.
Some Other Terms!
Logos: Appealing to one’s reason or logic
Pathos: Appealing to one’s emotion or pity
Ethos: Appealing to one’s ethics or morality
Parallelism - Refers to the repetition of words
or phrases that have similar grammatical
structures.
The overall effect is one of emphasis, and often
makes a writer’s argument seem more structured
Make Sure You Understand:
 Rhetorical Device
 Simile
 Metaphor
 Analogy
 Personification
 Allusion
 Rhetorical Question
 Quote
 Figurative Language
 Deduction
 Syllogism
 Fallacies
 Equivocation
 Either/Or Fallacy
 Overgeneralization
 Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
 Begging the Question
 Argument Ad Hominem
 Red Herring
 Subordination
 Coordination
 Logos
 Pathos
 Ethos
 Parallelism