Transcript Perception and Personality in Organizations

PERCEPTION
AND
.
PERSONALITY IN
ORGANIZATIONS
FOUNDATIONS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR
“ WE DON’T SEE THINGS AS THEY ARE,
WE SEE THINGS AS WE ARE.”
PERCEPTION
“ The study of perception is concerned with
identifying the process through which we interpret
and organize sensory information to produce our
conscious experience of objects and object
relationship.”
“ Perception is the process of receiving information
about and making sense of the world around us. It
involves deciding which information to notice, how
to categorize this information and how to interpret
it within the framework of existing knowledge.
PERCEPTION
“
A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment ”.
PERCEPTUAL PROCESS MODEL
Environmental Stimuli
Feeling
Hearing
Seeing
Smelling
Selective Attention
Organization and
Interpretation
Attitudes and
Behaviours
Tasting
THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS
1.
Sensation

2.
An individual’s ability to
detect stimuli in the
immediate environment.
Selection

3.
Organization

The process of placing
selected perceptual
stimuli into a framework
for “storage.”
4. Interpretation
The process a person
uses to eliminate some of
 The stage of the
the stimuli that have
perceptual process at
been sensed and to
which stimuli are
retain others for further
interpreted and given
processing.
meaning.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION

Characteristics of the object

size, intensity, motion, repetition, novelty

Perceptual context

Characteristics of the perceiver
attitudes
 perceptual defense
 expectations -- condition us to expect events

Factors in the perceiver
• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Factors in the Target
• Motion
• Novelty
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
Perception
Factors in the situation
• Time
• Work Setting
• Social Setting
FIGURE-GROUND ILLUSTRATION
Field-ground

differentiation
The tendency to distinguish
and focus on a stimulus that
is classified as figure as
opposed to background.
PERCEPTUAL GROUPING
Our tendency to group several individual
stimuli into a meaningful and recognizable
pattern.
 It is very basic in nature and largely it seems
to be inborn.
 Some factors underlying grouping are
-continuity
-closure
-proximity
-similarity

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
IS THE CAUSE OF THE BEHAVIOR SEEN AS INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL?
WE LOOK FOR THREE TYPES OF INFORMATION TO DECIDE:
DISTINCTIVENESS : Is this person’s performance different
on other tasks and in other situations?
CONSISTENCY : Over time, is there a change in behavior or
results on this task by this person?
CONSENSUS : Do others perform or behave similarly when in
a similar position?
“YES” answers lead to EXTERNAL attributions (Environmental
causes)
“NO” answers lead to INTERNAL attributions (Personal
causes)
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it
is internally or externally caused.
observation
Interpretation
Distictinctiveness
Attribution of cause
H
L
H
Individual
behavior
Consensus
L
External
Internal
External
Internal
H
Consistency
H –high
L- Low
Internal
L
External
Distinctiveness
Does this person
behave in
this manner
in other situation
Consensus
Do other person
Behave in the
Same manner?
Consistency
Does this person
behave
in this same
manner at other
times ?
Internal
Attribution
YES
Low
Distinctiveness
NO
High
Distinctiveness
No
Low
Consensus
Yes
High
Consensus
Yes
High
Consistency
No
Low
Consistency
20
External
Attributio
n
PERCEPTUAL ERRORS & ATTRIBUTIONS








STEREOTYPES : Based on appearance
HALO (HORN) EFFECTS : One outstanding characteristic
noted
CONTRAST EFFECT : Ordering
RECENCY EFFECT : Limited recall
PROJECTION : “Similar to me” Error
SKEWING ERRORS : Central tendency, leniency, strictness
bias
SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY : People respond the way
you “expected” they would
SELECTIVE PERCEPTION (MIND SETS) : Filtering,
selection,
ATTRIBUTION ERRORS

THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR


the cause of poor performance (by others) is due to
personal factors (lazy…didn’t try very hard)
SELF-SERVING BIAS

the cause of poor performance (by myself) is due to
situational factors (poor support), not because of a lack of
effort
IMPROVING PERCEPTUAL ACCURACY
Diversity
Management
Know
Yourself
Compare
Perceptions
With Others
Improving
Perceptual
Accuracy
Empathize
With Others
Postpone
Impression
Formation
KNOW YOURSELF (JOHARI WINDOW)
Feedback
Known to Self
Known
to Others
Disclosure
Open
Area Open
Area
Hidden
Area
Hidden
Unknown
to Others
Area
Unknown to Self
Blind
Area Blind
Area
Unknown
Unknown
Area
Area
DEFINING PERSONALITY
Relatively
stable pattern of behaviours and
consistent internal states that explain a person's
behavioural tendencies
Sum
total of ways in which an individual reacts and
interacts with others and environment
DETERMINANTS OF PERSONALITY
BIG FIVE PERSONALITY DIMENSIONS
Conscientiousness
Caring, dependable
Emotional Stability
Poised, secure
Openness to Experience
Agreeableness
Extraversion
Sensitive, flexible
Courteous, empathic
Outgoing, talkative
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
Extroversion versus
introversion
 Sensing versus
intuition
 Thinking versus feeling
 Judging versus
perceiving

Courtesy of Thompson Doyle Hennessey & Everest
LOCUS OF CONTROL AND SELFMONITORING

Locus of control
Internals believe in their effort and ability
 Externals believe events are mainly due to external
causes


Self-monitoring personality

Sensitivity to situational cues, and ability to adapt
your behaviour to that situation
PERSONALITY TRAITS
PERSONALITY THEORIES

Trait Theory

Psychoanalytical theory

Social Learning theory

Self theory
PERSONALITY TRAITS
 Traits
are relatively stable and consistent
personal characteristics
Assumptions for Trait theory:
Traits areCommon but vary in absolute amounts
Relatively stable
 Can be inferred by measuring his/her
behavioral indicators
TRAIT THEORY
 Trait
personality theories suggest that a
person can be described on the basis of
some number of personality traits
Allport identified some 4,500 traits
 Cattel used factor analysis to identify 30-35
basic traits

 Problems


with trait theory include:
Lack of explanation as to WHY traits develop
Issue of explaining transient versus longlasting traits
Allport
OVERVIEW OF THE BIG “5”
THE TRAIT THEORY
Moody
Anxious
Rigid
Sober
Pessimistic
Reserved
Unsociable
Quiet
UNSTABLE
Touchy
Restless
Aggressive
Excitable
Changeable
Impulsive
Optimistic
Active
INTROVERTED
EXTRAVERTED
Passive
Careful
Thoughtful
Peaceful
Controlled
Reliable
Even-tempered
Calm
Sociable
Outgoing
Talkative
Responsive
Easygoing
Lively
Carefree
Leadership
STABLE
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

Psychoanalytic theory, as devised by Freud, attempts to
explain personality on the basis of unconscious mental
forces
Levels of consciousness: We are unaware of some aspects of
our mental states
 Freud argued that personality is made up of multiple
structures, some of which are unconscious
 Freud argued that as we have impulses that cause us
anxiety; our personality develops defense mechanisms to
protect against anxiety

FREUDIAN THEORY
Levels of
consciousness
Conscious
 What we’re
aware of
 Preconscious
 Memories etc.
that can be
recalled
 Unconscious
 Wishes, feelings,
impulses that lies
beyond
awareness

Structures of Personality

Id
Operates according to
the “pleasure
principle”
 Ego
 Operates according to
the “reality” principle
 Superego
 Contains values and
ideals

DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Defense
mechanisms refer to unconscious
mental processes that protect the conscious
person from developing anxiety




Sublimation: person channels energy from
unacceptable impulses to create socially acceptable
accomplishments
Denial: person refuses to recognize reality
Projection: person attributes their own unacceptable
impulses to others
Repression: anxiety-evoking thoughts are pushed
into the unconscious
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
Rationalization: Substituting socially acceptable
reasons
 Intellectualization: Ignoring the emotional
aspects of a painful experience by focusing on
abstract thoughts, words, or ideas
 Reaction formation: Refusing to acknowledge
unacceptable urges, thoughts or feelings by
exaggerating the opposite state
 Regression: Responding to a threatening
situation in a way appropriate to an earlier age
or level of development
 Displacement: Substituting a less threatening
object for the original object of impulse

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY


It emphasizes on how an individual behaves or
acts in a given situation.
It holds the view that the specific characteristics
of a situation determine how an individual will
behave in such situation.
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVES
Carl Rogers’ self theory :

Self image

Ideal self

Looking self glass

Rreal self
SELF THEORY

We have needs for:
Self-consistency (absence of conflict between
self-perceptions
 Congruence (consistency between selfperceptions and experience)



Inconsistency evokes anxiety and threat
People with low self-esteem generally have
poor congruence between their selfconcepts and life experiences.
HOW PERSONALITY DEVELOPS OR SHAPES?
Some findings:

Freud’s four stages

Erikson’s eight life stages

Argyris Immaturity to maturity stages
FREUD’S FOUR STAGES

The Oral stage- Lasts for the first year

The Anal stage- Two to three years

The phallic stage- At the age of four years

The latency stage- B/w age of six to seven years

The genital stage-During adolescences &
adulthood
FREUD: CRITICISMS AND CRITIQUES
 He
studied very few people so not
representative sample
 Process of psychoanalysis interviewingexhibit preconceived notions and biases
 His measures/methods were untreatable
 Definitions don’t lend themselves to
experimentation
 One’s personality is fixed and unchanging

ERIKSON’S EIGHT LIFE STAGES

Infancy- first year

Early childhood- Two and three years

Play age-Four and Five years

School age-Six to twelve years

Adolescence-Teenage period

Young adulthood- During Twenties

Old(sunset) age- Adult
ARGYRIS IMMATURITY TO MATURITY STAGES
From:
 Passivity to activity
 Dependence to Independence
 Selective behavior
 Shallow interest to deep interest
 Short term perspective to long perspective
 Subordinate position to superordinate position
 Lack of self awareness to self awreness and
control
MEASURING PERSONALITY
Self report surveys
 Projective tests ( Rorschach Inkblot Test and
Thematic Appreciation Test)
 Assessment Centres

ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS

Projective Tests
used to assess personality (e.g., Rorschach or TAT
tests)
 How? provides ambiguous stimuli and subject projects
his or her motives into the ambiguous stimuli

ASSESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS -RORSCHACH

Rorschach Inkblot Test
the most widely used projective
test
 a set of 10 inkblots designed by
Hermann Rorschach

Rorschach
ASSESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS-RORSCHACH
used to identify
people’s inner
feelings by
analyzing their
interpretations
of the blots
ASSESSING THE
UNCONSCIOUS--TAT
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
People express their inner motives through the
stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
AM I A TYPE-A?
IDENTIFY THE NUMBER ON THE SCALE THAT BEST CHARACTERIZES
EACH TRAIT.
YOUR BEHAVIOR FOR
Casual about appointments
1 2
3
4
Never late
5
6
7
Not competitive
1
2
3
Very competitive
4
5
6
7
Never feel rushed
3
2
2
Take things one at a time
3
2
4
4
5
6
7
2
3
5
6
7
2 3
8
Fast (eating, walking, etc.)
4
5
6
7
Express feelings
1
8
Try to do many
things at once
Slow doing things
1
8
Always feel rushed
1
3
8
8
"Sit on" feelings
4
5
6
7
8
Many interests
outside work
1 2
3
Few interests
4
5
6
7
8
RESULTS
A total of 120 or more indicates that you are a hard-core Type
A. Scores below 90 indicate that you are a hard-core Type
B. The following gives you more specifics:
120 or more points = A+ personality type
106-119 = A
100-105 = A
90-99 = B+
Less than 90 = B
If you score in the "A" categories, you need to be aware of
your tendency to focus on quantity over quality. You may
do better in jobs that are routine and rely on speed rather
than creativity for success. In addition, Type As often
experience moderate to high levels of stress.
WHAT'S MY BASIC PERSONALITY?
1
2
3
4
5
Quiet
Talkative
Tolerant
Critical
Disorganized
Organized
Tense
Calm
Imaginative
Conventional
Reserved
Outgoing
Uncooperative
Cooperative
Unreliable
Dependable
Insecure
Secure
New
Familiar
Sociable
Loner
Suspicious
Trusting
Undirected
Goal-oriented
Enthusiastic
Depressed
Change
Status quo