Transcript Outer Space Development Trends

Outer Space Development
Trends . . .
an outsiders’ perspective
Copyright 2004 E.E. Weeks
What Outer Space Development Means
Outer space development means different things to
different people, and this changes over time. It can
mean:
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space exploration, studying planets, moons and stars, and
entering into outer space through either robotic or manned
(human) missions
advancements in biological and other sciences and
technology, and discoveries and spin off benefits
satellite telecommunications – cell phones, the Internet
and cable television
remote sensing, Global Positioning Systems (GPS), visual
imagery, mapping or meteorology satellites
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space transportation vehicles, spaceports, launch services and old
versus new space vehicles
space tourism, adventure travel, joyrides, parabolic flights,
suborbital flights, short stays in low earth or geostationary orbit in
orbital hotels
space settlement, space colonization, long stays in artificial,
closed-ecology human space habitats in free orbit powered by
solar power
mining and extracting minerals from asteroids, The Moon and
Mars such as gold, platinum, magnesium, calcium, iron and many
others
The search, discovery and communication with extraterrestrial
intelligence To
SPACE EXPLORATION
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Until recently, the U.S. and former Soviet
Union were the only two space
superpowers.
Today, many countries have activated
their own programs of sending spacecraft
and satellites into space, to Mars, and to
the Moon.
China, Europe (e.g.. France, Germany,
Italy, Russia, United Kingdom), India and
Moon Missions
Mankind has gone to the Moon more
times than people realize.
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While Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin
were the first humans to land on the Moon on
July 16, 1969 (Apollo 11), there were fifty-seven
prior missions to the Moon. This included
undertakings by both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. There
were twenty-two subsequent missions to the
Moon. Altogether, mankind has arranged and
attempted eighty trips to the moon. Some were
successful, others were unsuccessful. Some were
manned, others were unmanned - rovers,
orbiters and the like[1].
[1] For a complete list of the various missions to the Moon,
including, orbiting, manned landings and unmanned spacecraft
see http://www.planetary.org/learn/missions/moonmissions.html.
MISSIONS TO MARS
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On January 4 and January 25, 2004 twin robots Spirit
and Opportunity landed on Mars. Mars Exploration
Rover Spirit, after an interplanetary cruise of almost half
a year and 487 million km (303 million miles) touched
down softly on red planet Mars, in the intended landing
site region, Gusev Crater, 184.8d W, 14.8d S. Mars
Exploration Rover Opportunity had a correction
maneuver, the first after four months, on January 16,
2004, just little more than a week and 12.5 million km
(7.8 million miles) before arriving at Mars. After an
interplanetary cruise of more than 6 month, Mars
Exploration Rover Opportunity successfully touched
down on January 25, 2004, 5:05 UT (January 24, 2004,
9:05 p.m. PST) at its intended landing site Meridiani
Terra (2.07 S, 6.08 W).
Spirit Photo of Mars taken
January 8, 2004
Opportunity Photo on Mars taken
January 25, 2004
Cassini-Huygens' Trip to Saturn
and Titan
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In July 2004 NASA’s Cassini-Huygens
spacecraft arrived at Saturn and its Moon Titan
and sent new information regarding the two
celestial bodies. Cassini-Huygens mission is a
cooperative project of NASA, the European
Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency[1].
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[1] For more information about the CassiniHuygens mission, visit http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov
and the Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org .
China's Manned Space Program
THE SHENZHOU 5
China's first manned spacecraft,
is expected to blast into orbit
sometime this fall. The ninemeter-long craft, which holds two
pairs of solar panels and four
main engines, is designed to carry up
to three astronauts. If the mission is
successful, China was the third nation (after
Russia and the U.S.) to send a manned vehicle
into space.
Scientific American, 10/13/03
In addition, China is “planning to establish a
base on the Moon [by 2010] to exploit its mineral
resources” for the stated purpose being “Our
long-term goal is to set up a base on the Moon
and mine its riches for the benefit of humanity.”
BBC News, May 20, 2002
Europe’s First Moon Mission
The European Space
Agency's SMART-1
spacecraft took off this
Fall for a trip to the
moon -- with an arrival
date of December 2004.
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The unmanned flight,
Europe's first to the
moon, was launched on
an Ariane 5 rocket from a
base in Kourou, French
Guiana.
A New Space Race: Project
Prometheus
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Plans have been put into place
for NASA to use nuclear
propulsion, since it is believed
that nuclear propulsion
Nuclear propulsion is capable
(in theory) of achieving much
faster speeds than
conventional rockets, and that
they will use far less fuel. This
could cut travel time to Mars[1].
[1] "Plans Put into Place for
NASA to go Nuclear", BBC
News World Edition, Online
Science Editor (January 22,
2003) at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scie
nce/nature/2684329.stm.
NASA's New Budget
NASA's New Space Policy Budget
Chart
The Significance of SpaceShipOne
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October 4, 2004 SpaceShipOne won the X Prize. Mike Melville piloted the
spacecraft. Just a few months earlier, in April of 2004 the Federal Aviation
Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation issued the
world’s first license for a private sub-orbital manned rocket flight to Burt
Rutan’s Scaled Composites, Mojave, California.
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The license issued is for a sequence of sub-orbital flights
spanning a one-year period. SpaceShipOne was one of
several aircraft in the running for the X-Prize competition,
When it reached an altitude above 62.14 miles (100 km)
on September 29, 2004, SpaceShipOne became the first
private manned spaceflight[1]. Before this all trips into
space were undertaken by the government. Paul Allen,
the billionaire who co-founder of Microsoft, funded the
SpaceShipOne project[2].
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[1] See www.xprize.org.
[2] Business Wire (December 17, 2003).
SPACE INDUSTRIES and
COMMERCIALIZATION
In the early stages of space activities only a few states
engaged in the use of outer space. Today, however,
commercial space activities have grown dramatically in
recent years. States, state institutions, international
governmental organizations and private entities are actively
engaged in the commercial use of outer space. Several
space industries have gone through the process of
commercialization:
Launch Services
Telecommunications Satellites
Remote Sensing Satellites
Direct Broadcasting Satellites
Space Transportation
Space Stations
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Benefits from Space
Spinoff is NASA's annual
premiere publication featuring
successfully commercialized
NASA technology. For more
than 40 years, the NASA
Commercial Technology
Program has facilitated the
transfer of NASA technology
to the private sectors. The
resulting commercialization
has contributed to the
development of commercial
products and services in the
fields of health and medicine,
industry, consumer goods,
computer technology, and
environment.
See
http://www.sti.nasa.gov/tto/
spinoff.html
Examples of Spinoff Benefits
Wastewater Purification Systems
Solar Energy Enlightenment
Cordless Products
Heart Rate Monitor
Portable Computer
The Internet
Cell Phones
Cable Television
Laser Technology
Computer Reader for the Blind
Smoke Detectors
Computer Bar Codes
Quartz Timing Crystals
Shock Absorbing Tennis Shoes
Medical Equipment
Pacemakers and Heart Pumps
Sunglasses and Radiation Blocking Lenses
Scratch Resistant Lenses
Advancements in firefighting protective gear
Weather Information
AND MANY, MANY MORE
ARTIFICIAL SATELLITES
Sputnik was the very
first satellite; it was
launched by Russia in
October of 1957.
This was the beginning of
the space race for national
prestige and scientific achievement.
It was also the beginning of a new
age of communications.
SATELLITES
Today There is a
multitude of satellites
for:
telecommunications,
remote sensing,
weather reporting &
television
broadcasting.
SATELLITE INDUSTRY STATISTICS
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According to "Space News Top 50: 2004" in the Space News
Business Report of August 2, 2004, based on company
questionnaires, annual reports and interviews with
corporate officials and analysts, the top grossing space
firms for 2003 include:
Boeing Co. (U.S.) at $9,358,000,000
Lockheed Martin Corp. (U.S.) at $8,700,000,000
EADS (Netherlands) at $3,013,000,000
Raytheon (U.S.) at $2,978,000,000
Northrop Grumman Corp. (U.S.) at $2,800,000,000
Science Applications International Corp. (U.S.) at
$1,750,000,000
United Space Alliance (U.S.) at $1,684,000,000
Alcatel (France) at $1,506,000,000
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The DirecTV Group (U.S.) at $1,322,000,000
ATK (U.S.) at $1,134,000,000
Mitsubishi Electric Corp. (Japan) at
$1,018,000,000
Honeywell, Inc. (U.S.) at $775,000,000
Arianespace SA (France) at $1,529,000,000
Alenia Spazio (Italy) at $637,000,000
L-3 Communications (U.S.) at $619,000,000
Orbital Sciences Corp. (U.S.) at
$582,000,000
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Trimble Navigation Ltd. (U.S.) at
$541,000,000
Computer Sciences Corp. (U.S.) at
$500,000,000
Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. (U.S.)
at $476,000,000
Loral Space & Communications (U.S.) at
$474,000,000
General Dynamics (U.S.) at $474,000,000
Harris Corp. (U.S.) at $428,000,000
Snecma (France) at $421,000,000
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United Technologies Corp. (U.S.) at
$415,000,000
Eastman Kodak Co. (U.S.) at
$383,000,000
ITT Industries, Inc. (U.S.) at
$378,000,000
EchoStar Communications Corp. (U.S.) at
$244,000,000
ViaSat, Inc. (U.S.) at $239,000,000
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. (Japan)
at $216,000,000
Aerojet (U.S.) at $213,000,000
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Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries
Co., Ltd. (Japan) at $190,000,000
Gilat Satellite Networks, Ltd. (Israel) at
$190,000,000
MacDonald Dettwiler and Associates, Ltd.
(Canada) at $190,000,000
Swales (U.S.) at $162,000,000
EMS Technologies (U.S.) at $126,000,000
MAN Technologies AG (Germany) at
$121,000,000
OHB-System AG (Germany) at
$121,000,000
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Jacobs Sverdrup (U.S.) at $118,000,000
Goodrich Corp. (U.S.) at $114,000,000
Spacehab, Inc. (U.S.) at $95,000,000
ND SatCom AG (Germany) at $92,000,000
Saab Ericsson Space AB (Sweden) at
$86,000,000
Contraves Space AG (Switzerland) at
$83,000,000
Integral Systems, Inc. (U.S.) at
$83,000,000
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Dutch Space B.V. (Netherlands) at
$82,000,000
Com Dev International, Ltd. (Canada) at
$70,000,000
PSI Group (U.S.) at $70,000,000
Qineti (U.K.) at $44,000,000
Analytical Graphics (U.S.) at $38,000,000
Vega Group, plc (U.K.) at $36,000,000.
For more information see
http://dev.space.com/spacenews/top50_2004.html.
Satellites also help to monitor the weather and
environmental changes.
US LEGISLATION
Over the last four decades, successive US
Congresses and Presidential Administrations have
sought ways to improve the prospects for
successful commercialization in two major ways:
transfer of technology developed in government
laboratories to private industry; and creation of
policies that promoted private financing of
commercial opportunities in space.
Those efforts have been reflected in a series of
legislative initiatives - most notably in satellite
communications, remote sensing, and launch
services.
US LEGISLATION ENCOURAGING
The Shift From Government to Private
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Communications Satellite Act of 1962
Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984
Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984
Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992
The Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984
The National Space Transportation Policy of 1994
The Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of
2004
Corporate Joint Ventures
Within the past ten years there has been an astonishing increase in the quantity and
quality of international cooperative activities. Many involve former political adversaries.
Aldrin (1998: 115) provides the following examples:
Boeing Sea launch venture a venture b/w Norwegian, American, Russian and
Ukrainian firms
Lockheed Martin's joint venture with Russian firms RKK Khrunichev and RKK
Energiia Globalstar's venture to jointly produce communications satellites with CAST
in China;
TRW's cooperative arrangements with the governments of Korea and Taiwan;
Pratt and Whitney's marketing and co-development venture with Energomash;
The Starstem joint venture with the Progress Rocket and Space Complex and
Areospatiale; and
The Celestri broadband communications system involving USA's Motorola and
Frances' Matra.
Evolution in Space Transportation
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Ascender is a small sub-orbital
spaceplane intended for use as a
reusable sounding rocket and for
carrying passengers on space
experience flights.
Spacecab is an enlarged and refined
Ascender air launched from a
supersonic carrier aeroplane. It uses
proven materials and existing
engines. It is designed to launch
small satellites, transport supplies
and crew to space stations, and to
pioneer orbital space tourism.
Spacebus is and enlarged and
mature development of Spacecab,
which should have a cost per person
to orbit of around $10,000. This
could be achieved in about fifteen
years.
SPACE TRANSPORTATION
Launch Vehicles, Rockets and Spaceplanes
The Technology exists for
advanced spaceships.
Spaceflight Revolution (2003),
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The X-15 was making regular suborbital flights thirty five years ago.
It was the first, and still the only,
fully reusable space-faring
aeroplane.
a new book from David Ashford,
founder and director of Bristol
Spaceplanes Limited, discusses
this. Ashford was the recipient of
the ORBIT award in the "Visionaries"
category at the recent Space Tourism
Pioneer Awards
THE X PRIZE COMPETION
10 Million Dollars
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"The X PRIZE Competition was
created to attract the best and
brightest of today's aerospace
engineers to develop private
spaceships for space tourism,"
The total number of teams now
registered to win the X PRIZE
exceeds 20 from six nations:
Argentina, Canada, Romania,
Russia, UK, and the United
States."
http://www.xprize.org/press/press
_release.html
"I think the X PRIZE should be
viewed as the beginning of one
giant leap..."
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Tom Hanks
Actor,
Director and Producer
"The X PRIZE is a masterstroke, a
brilliant idea. What the X PRIZE
could very well..."
INTRODUCTION
Bold New Steps
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In January, 2004 President Bush articulated a progressive space initiative for the Moon, Mars &
Beyond, to establish a Moon base and regular manned missions to Mars.
Leaders from China and India had expressed similar ambitions for space in 2003.
Public perceptions about space have shifted to space for everyone instead of only for astronauts.
Space tourism companies have begun selling trips to space to the general public.
Political actors are lobbying for relaxation of FAA restrictions for public space travel.
New discourse is calling for full commercialization & free marketization of space.
Community discussion forums have been created to change public perceptions.
Think tanks between space enthusiasts and the entertainment industry are creating themes to get
the general public excited about outer space development.
New & proposed domestic laws for new space industries are pending before the US Congress
Conference themes for the International Astronautical Federation, the International Academy of
Astronautics, and the International Institute of Space Law are increasingly centering around
commercialization themes
Space mining proposals are being seriously considered by key entrepreneurs
SPACE INDUSTRIES NOT YET
COMMERICALIZED
Since the mid 1990s newer space industries have been
discussed within the space development discourse
(articles, books, movies, conversations etc.), and as the
subject of numerous conferences, symposia and
colloquia. These discussions and plans are articulated
around the idea of commercializing the following
industries:
Space Tourism
Space Mining
Space Settlement
SPACE TOURISM
Q: What is Space Tourism?
A: The notion that space is a place for laypeople (non astronauts) to
visit and enjoy some day.
Three Phases:
 Suborbital day trips (joyrides)
 Short stays in space-based facilities (low Earth orbit)
 Longer stays in space – further into space or on other celestial
bodies
Space tourism is not a new concept, but has been around since the
1950s, or before. It was ignored until recently.
Everything you ever wanted to know can be found at
http://www.spacefuture.com/tourism/timeline.shtml
SPACE ADVENTURES, LTD.
July 22, 2002
XCOR Aerospace and
Space Adventures, Ltd., announced a
marketing agreement that enables
Space Adventures to offer the first
600 flights to 62 miles (100 km)
altitude aboard XCOR's Xerus
sub-orbital vehicle, designed
specifically for space tourist
flights. The tickets cost $98,000
per. Space Adventures has already
sold over $2 million dollars.
http://www.spaceadventures.com/pre
ss/072202.html
SPACE TOURISM MARKET
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According to a recent study
commissioned by Space
Adventures, the sub-orbital
space tourist market could
generate revenues of over $1
billion annually.
Space Adventures has over
100 sub-orbital reservations
and is currently accepting
bookings for sub-orbital flights
at $98,000.
SPACE STATIONS
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Humans traveling to space will
need somewhere to stay.
The International Space
Station has established a
knowledge base. Research and
information from this project
will have vast implications for
the future space infrastructure.
The International Space Station
Source NASA 1999
SPACE HOTELS, ORBITAL HOTELS
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Shimizu Corporation's popular Space
Hotel design
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The hotels themselves will vary
greatly - from being quite spartan in
the early days, to huge luxury
structures at a later date.
Luckily it's easy to design basic
accommodation in orbit - because it
was already done in 1973 with the
"Skylab" space station.
Minimal living facilities require a
cylindrical module with airconditioning, some windows, and a
kitchen and bathroom. But zero
gravity allows you to build almost any
shape and size, in almost any
direction.
http://www.spacefuture.com/touri
sm/hotels.shtml
NASA’S
SPACE LAUNCH INITIATIVE
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NASA is revolutionizing its space
transportation system to significantly
increase safety and reliability, while
reducing cost, through its Space
Launch Initiative.
The design and development of a
next-generation transport vehicle — an
Orbital Space Plane — is one of the
objectives of the Space Launch
Initiative.
The Orbital Space Plane program will
develop the entire space
transportation system, including
ground operations and all supporting
technologies needed to conduct
missions to and from the International
Space Station.
NASA’S SPACE GRANT PROGRAM
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Space Grant supports both graduate and
undergraduate students through a network of 52
university-based consortia in all 50 states, the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico.
In 2001, the network involved 820 affiliates,
including 530 academic institutions. Each
consortium receives fellowship and scholarship
funds* from NASA.
SPACEPORTS
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This plan was developed by the University and Community College System of Nevada
(UCCSN) NASA Space Grant/EPSCoR program based on that program’s vision for
aerospace education and research in Nevada. Its purpose is to provide guidance for
the NASA Space Grant/EPSCoR program, and an aerospace vision for the State of
Nevada.
Nevada’s Aerospace Future, A 2025 Perspective
In 2025 Nevada will have established itself as the Nation’s Western Gateway to Space
through the development of one of 5 new national spaceports serving the needs of
the international aerospace community. The Nevada spaceport will be the gateway
for aerospace customers in the Great Basin including, including Oregon, Idaho, Utah,
Arizona, and will also provide a high-altitude launch site for California. The Nevada
spaceport will provide service facilities for both sub-orbital aerospace planes and reuseable launch vehicles. It will provide cargo, test and integration facilities for
payloads for commercial, scientific and national defense missions as well as re-supply
missions to the international space station, to lunar bases, and to Mars.
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http://www.nevada.edu/epscor/SpacePlan.html
SPACE MINING
Corporations, individuals, nations and institutions are
planning to tap into the wealth of space by extracting
natural resources from the Moon, asteroids and Mars.
For example, a chunk of iron-nickel meteorite could have a
value of $80 trillion dollars. Gold concentration “is ten
times richer than anything being mined on Earth, and the
entire platinum group of minerals in there-metals-is 100
times more concentrated than anything being mined on
Earth. We are talking about parts per million, parts per
billion. . .”
Jim Benson quoted in Making Space Happen: Private Space Ventures and the
Visionaries Behind Them (2002).
US Laws Encouraging
Commercialization
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Communications Satellite Act of 1962
Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984
Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984
The Commercial Space Launch Act of 1984
National Space Policy (1989)
Commercial Space Launch Policy (1990)
Commercial Space Policy Guidelines (1991)
National Launch Strategy (1991).
Land Remote Sensing Policy Act of 1992
National Competitiveness Act of 1992
• Commercial Space Competitiveness Act of 1992
• The National Space Transportation Policy of 1994
• The Hydrogen and Fusion Research Authorization Act of
1994
• International Space Station Authorization Act of 1995
• Space Commercialization Promotion Act of 1996
• Spaceports Equity Bill
• Act to Encourage the Development of a Commercial
Space Industry in the United States, and for Other
Purposes of 1998
• Commercial Space Transportation Competitiveness Act
of 2000
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Space Preservation Act 2001
The Invest in Space Now Act of 2001
Space Tourism Promotion Act of 2001
The Commercial Space Act of 2003
Commercial Space Transportation Act of 2003
Zero Gravity, Zero Tax Bill 2003
Invest in Space Now 2003
Spaceport Equality Act 2003
Commercial Space Amendments Act 2004
KEY ACTORS
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Entrepreneurs
Interest Groups
International Organizations
Institutions
International Astronautical Federation
International Academy of Astronautics
International Institute of Space Law
National Space Society
International Space University
NEXT STEPS
The intellectual and professional base has concluded that new space
assets will foster the expansion of space activities in the following
ways:
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Creating various facilities in low Earth orbit
Transferring payloads and people from one Earth orbit to another
Developing the geostationary orbit with platforms such as solar power stations,
depots for cryogenic propellants, and service stations for satellites or spacecraft
Establishing human outposts at both the Earth-Moon and the Sun-Earth Lagrange
points
Developing nuclear propulsion systems for solar system exploration by human beings
Establishing human outposts on the Moon and in-orbit around Mars
Exploiting extraterrestrial resources such as water on The Moon or Mars for oxygen
to breathe and hydrogen to burn as fuel, or platinum from an asteroid
To explore the outer solar system in some detail using colonies of robotic spacecraft.
LUNAR EMBASSY
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In 1980, Dennis Hope sent letters to the United Nations, the United States
government and the government of the former Soviet Union, informing them
that he was officially claiming ownership of all planetary and lunar surfaces
(aside from the Earth) in our solar system. He even gave them the
opportunity to respond if they had objections, and as crazy as it sounds, he
hasn't heard a word from any of them since.
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So...for twenty years Dennis Hope has been selling plots on the Moon, Mars
and other heavenly bodies - for a pretty reasonable price! And he's been
pursuing this as not just a novelty sale, but a serious real estate transaction
(complete with covenants and bylaws that prevent the unsightly or trivial
usage of the property). His sales are accelerating, and within a couple of
years he anticipates he'll have a constituency in the millions - enough to put
serious pressure on the UN and the U.S. to recognize the government of
Luna (never mind that not a single landlord has set foot on the property yet).
http://www.scifidimensions.com/Feb01/dennishope.htm
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ORBITAL DEVELOPMENT
• Orbital Development (http://www.orbdev.com) welcomes NASA's
NEAR spacecraft upon the spacecraft's successful landing on the
Asteroid Eros. Eros is owned by Orbital Development, says the
company's founder, Gregory Nemitz. OrbDev has owned the
property since Nemitz established a claim on March 3, 2000, and
filed a Class D property claim with the Archimedes Institute.
• "It is the wild frontier up there." says Nemitz. "Since there are no
laws governing private property claims in Outer Space. the first
claimant gets ownership of it." This concept may sound foreign to
Americans, but precedents are well entrenched throughout history.
"The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 prohibits National Governments
from making property claims in space, so NASA and the NEAR
project cannot make a superseding claim for Eros, based on
NEAR's successful landing." says Nemitz.
International Law = International
Politics
Much has been written on international law
and international politics. Too little focuses
on the process of change in international
law triggered by new political mood eras.
By looking at changes in international law,
we can see this relationship.
International Law = International Politics
As Hager [1] (1970) explains "the international legal system has
been marked by continuous development and re-definition to reach
objectives which have been formulated for it". The process involves
the intentional acts of individuals - or groups of individuals. Hager
(1970: 8) also asserts that international law is more accurately
characterized as de lege ferenda (that which is developing to attain
the objectives contemplated for it), rather that de lege lata (that
which is established). He explains this to mean that international law
is shaped by all the elements that compose the international system
and is "reflective of the structure of the world, transnational forces,
the pattern of power and the political cultures of the main actors, and
the relations among the units" (1970: 8).
INTERNATIONAL LAW
Governance of Space Activities
In 1958, shortly after the launching of the first artificial satellite,
Sputnik-1, the United Nations General Assembly established an ad
hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (GA resolution
1348 (XIII)). The following year, a permanent Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was established by the General
Assembly (resolution 1472 (XIV)).
In 1959, the Committee had 24 members. Since then it has grown to
65 members - one of the largest Committees in the United Nations.
In addition to States a number of international organizations,
including both intergovernmental and non-governmental
organizations, have observer status with COPUOS and its
Subcommittees.
PURPOSE OF THE COPUOS
The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space is “the only international forum for
the development of international space law”. Since its inception, the Committee has
concluded five international legal instruments and five sets of legal principles governing
space-related activities.
The five treaties and agreements are:
The Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including
the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution
2222 (XXI)), opened for signature on 27 January 1967, entered into force on 10 October 1967, 98 ratifications and
27 signatures (as of 1 January 2003);
The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into
Outer Space (the "Rescue Agreement", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2345 (XXII)), opened for
signature on 22 April 1968, entered into force on 3 December 1968, 88 ratifications, 25 signatures, and 1
acceptance of rights and obligations (as of 1 January 2003);
The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (the "Liability Convention",
adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2777 (XXVI)), opened for signature on 29 March 1972, entered
into force on 1 September 1972, 82 ratifications, 25 signatures, and 2 acceptances of rights and obligations (as of
1 January 2003);
The Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (the "Registration Convention", adopted by
the General Assembly in its resolution 3235 (XXIX)), opened for signature on 14 January 1975, entered into force
on 15 September 1976, 44 ratifications, 4 signatures, and 2 acceptances of rights and obligations (as of 1 January
2003);
The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Moon
Agreement", adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 34/68), opened for signature on 18 December
1979, entered into force on 11 July 1984, 10 ratifications and 5 signatures (as of 1 January 2003).
The five declarations and legal principles are:
The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of
States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (General
Assembly resolution 1962 (XVIII) of 13 December 1963);
The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth
Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (resolution
37/92 of 10 December 1982);
The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer
Space (resolution 41/65 of 3 December 1986);
The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in
Outer Space (resolution 47/68 of 14 December 1992);
The Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and
Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States,
Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries
(resolution 51/122 of 13 December 1996).
Stated Purpose
The international legal principles in these five treaties provide for freedom of
use and exploration, non-appropriation of outer space by any one country,
arms control, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and
rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference
with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of
space activities, scientific investigation and the exploitation of natural
resources in outer space and the settlement of disputes. Each of the
treaties lays great stress on the notion that the domain of outer space, the
activities carried out therein and whatever benefits might accrue therefrom
should be devoted to enhancing the well-being of all countries and
humankind, and each includes elements elaborating the common idea of
promoting international cooperation in outer space activities.
The five sets of legal principles adopted by the United Nations General
Assembly provide for the application of international law and promotion of
international cooperation and understanding in space activities, the
dissemination and exchange of information through transnational direct
television broadcasting via satellites and remote satellite observations of
Earth and general standards regulating the safe use of nuclear power
sources necessary for the exploration and use of outer space.
Outer Space Development
• Outer space development and colonization is not
far off. Domestic and international laws have been
created to shape outer space development. Outer
space development hasn’t just happened; it was the
result of concerted actions. Laws have been
passed to encourage these activities.
• Established space industries include:
telecommunications, direct television
broadcasting, remote sensing, space transportation
and launch services. There are also new impending
industries such as space stations, space tourism,
space mining and space settlement. Various
activities are underway to develop the final frontier
for human visitation and extended habitation.
However, this is news to most people in the U.S. as
well as around the globe.