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APA Form and Style for
Proposals and Dissertations
Martha King
[email protected]
Senior Dissertation Editor
Lansdowne Residency
March 2010
Advanced Citations
Remember: You’re trying to show your
reader you know what you’re talking about.
Every assertion should be backed up by the
literature using APA citation style.
Advanced Citations: Citing Nonquoted
Information
• One author: (Sinatra, 2007)
Serial
comma
• Two authors: (Sinatra & Garland, 2007)
• Three to five authors: (Sinatra, Garland, &
Fitzgerald, 2007) on first reference with
(Sinatra et al., 2007) after that
• Six or more authors: (Sinatra et al., 2007)
on first and all subsequent references
Citing Nonquoted Information
3.96: An organization: (Wonka, Inc., 2008)
3.97: No author: (“Without Identity,” 2006)
3.98: Same surname:
M. King (2005) and W. King (2007)
discovered King is a more common last
name than typically thought.
Citing Nonquoted Information
3.99: Multiple works in same parentheses
-Alphabetical order (the order works appear in
the reference list)
-Authors separated by a semicolon
-Multiple years with the same author have
older year first, and use a, b, c designation for same
years
(Poppycock, 2005a, 2005b; Zounds, 2001)
This confirmed the observation that
holding the environment constant,
rather than letting it vary dynamically,
frequently occurred in more than one
field of research (Axelrod, 1984;
Barnard, 1968, pp. 67, 78; Klyubin et
al., 2004, p. 566).
Secondary Sources
You didn’t read the original study, you read about it in
another source: APA 5th p. 247, APA 6th p. 178: citation of
a work discussed in a secondary source.
Use them when original is out of print, unavailable through
usual sources, or not available in English.
Text citation
Walsh and King’s study on the correct use of APA citations
in Walden University dissertations (as cited in Zuckerman,
Ball, & McIndoo, 2008) . . .
Reference list entry
Zuckerman, J., Ball, T., & McIndoo, T. (2008). Correct use of
citations among college students: Myth or reality.
Citation City, 10(1), 578-599.
Citing Nonquoted Information
Personal Communication
(APA 5 3.102; APA 6 6.20)
-Includes interviews, e-mails, letters, phone
conversations—nonrecoverable data
-Does not appear in reference list
B. A. Superciter (personal communication, August 1,
2008) found....
(M. I. Right, personal communication, March 17, 2008)
Citing Quoted Information
Citing a quoted piece of information:
(Fitzgerald, 2004, p. 62) or
Fitzgerald (2004) found “jazz is the lifeblood
of the soul” (p. 62).
The CDICA (2007) determined that
“acronyms can be overused” (para. 3).
Formatting Block Quotes
because no one actually reads block quotes (Zuckerman, 2008):
I love block quotations because they fill up my paper.
However, I am very careful not to use too many of them in
order to show my reader what I’m talking about. My
professors, seeing many block quotations in my work,
might not give me the credit as a writer and researcher that
I so clearly deserve. (p. 4)
Note. No quotation marks. Double space. Period at the end
of quote.
How often do you cite?
Cite anything that includes actual statistics or figures (50%
of the population believes...), and cite anything that anyone
could pick a fight with you about (that means you do not
need to cite that the Earth is round).
Picture someone looking over your shoulder asking, “Says
who?”
See APA 6th edition manual, section 6.11 for guidelines.
Citing the same study in the same
paragraph
Within a paragraph, when the name of the
author is part of the narrative, you need not
include the year in subsequent
nonparenthetical references to a study.
Do include the year in all parenthetical
citations.
King (2008) found that citing is fun.
King took great care in conducting the
research, surveying 150 current Walden
students. In fact “students really grow to
love APA” (King, 2008, p. 23). King also
found that students secretly love APA even
when first introduced to the style.
Example 1: Citing the same study
in the same paragraph
Children’s role in relation to the maternal illness is a major consideration
in understanding the child-mother dyad. If children are parentified, that is,
they meet the parent’s emotional needs rather than the reverse, their “ageappropriate dependency needs go unmet” (Teyber, 1997, p. 169). If the
child-mother interaction indicates enmeshment or disengagement,
children will not have the secure base necessary to develop independence
and closeness (Teyber, 1997, p. 172). While enmeshment and
disengagement might exist in any family unit, its presence may be directly
precipitated by the existence of a maternal mental illness through the
mother’s necessity to meet her psychiatric needs while simultaneously
meeting her child’s needs. Hence, the illness itself can interfere with
child-mother interactions. Teyber’s (1997) theory is valid in the sense that
parentification is, indeed, problematic.
Example 2: How to cite the same study
in the same paragraph
Children’s roles in relation to the maternal illness is a major
consideration in understanding the child-mother dyad. If
children are parentified, that is, they meet the parent’s
emotional needs rather than the reverse, their “age-appropriate
dependency needs go unmet” (Teyber, 1997, p. 169). According
to Teyber (1997), if the child-mother interaction indicates
enmeshment or disengagement, children will not have the
secure base necessary to develop independence and
closeness (p. 172). While enmeshment and disengagement
might exist in any family unit, its presence may be directly
precipitated by the existence of a maternal mental illness
through the mother’s necessity to meet her psychiatric needs
while simultaneously meeting her child’s needs. Hence, the
illness itself can interfere with child-mother interactions.
Teyber’s theory is valid in the sense that parentification is,
indeed, problematic.
Example 3: How to cite the same study
in the same paragraph
Children’s roles in relation to the maternal illness is a major
consideration in understanding the child-mother dyad. If,
according to Teyber (1997), children are parentified, that is, they
meet the parent’s emotional needs rather than the reverse, their
“age-appropriate dependency needs go unmet” (p. 169). Teyber
added that if the child-mother interaction indicates enmeshment
or disengagement, children will not have the secure base
necessary to develop independence and closeness (p. 172).
While enmeshment and disengagement might exist in any family
unit, its presence may be directly precipitated by the existence of
a maternal mental illness through the mother’s necessity to meet
her psychiatric needs while simultaneously meeting her child’s
needs. Hence, the illness itself can interfere with child-mother
interactions. Teyber’s theory is valid in the sense that
parentification is, indeed, problematic.
Citations followed by assertions
Other researchers have studied how team processes
influenced patient care outcomes. For example,
Alexander et al. (2005) found that member participation
in team processes improved care outcomes.
Cunningham, Chelladurai, and Packianathan (2004)
examined team decision participation processes and
proposed that as perceived team equality in decision
making increases, so too did effectiveness. Kozlowski
and Bell (2003) suggested that as coordination,
collaboration, communication and goal congruency
advanced, team effectiveness improved. Successful
coordination of team task in conjunction with team
process mapping was seen by Kozlowski and Bell as an
important variable that supports team effectiveness.
Assertions backed by citations
Studies on shared mental model commonly
conceptualized shared cognition as a process by which
members of a team intellectually manage and process
information within the team (Cannon-Bowers et al., 1993;
Mathieu et al., 2000). Another commonality noted in
research on shared mental model is the categorization
into task work and team work (Kraiger & Wensel, 1997;
Rentsch & Klimoski, 2001). An assortment of terminology
has been used to describe socially shared cognition,
including, transactive memory (Wegner, Erber, &
Raymond, 1991), distributed cognition (Hutchins, 1991),
SMM (Cannon-Bower et al., 1993), and collective mind
(Weick & Robert, 1993).
Repeat the author name rather than using a
pronoun. Do not use first names.
Susan Larkin in her
research presented how
“manipulating scaffolded
instruction could optimize
learning” ( 2001, p. 1).
Guidelines spelled out in
her research study
provided information on
how to implement
scaffolding in the
classroom. She included
information on the pros
and cons of the uses of
the strategy.
Larkin (2001) described
how “manipulating
scaffolded instruction
could optimize learning”
(p. 1). The guidelines
indicate how to
implement scaffolding in
the classroom, along
with the pros and cons of
the strategy.
A cautionary word about direct quotes
• Use them judiciously, especially block
quotes.
• Do not begin or end a paragraph with a
direct quote.
• When professors and editors talk about
scholarly voice, they mean your voice.
Verb Tenses
The cardinal principle is that the verb
tenses must always make sense.
In your proposal, you write about what you
intend to do. [future tense]
In your dissertation, you write about what
you did. [past tense]
Verb Tenses
The cardinal principle is that the verb tenses
must always make sense.
There is a shortage of nurses in North Dakota.
Air traffic control is among the highest stress
jobs in any industry.
The United States experienced record budget
deficits under the Bush administration.
Verb Tenses
Verb tenses that make sense in the proposal
do not necessarily make sense when you’ve
done the study and written the last two
chapters.
A survey will be distributed to 30
longshoremen in Hoboken.
A survey was distributed to 30 longshoremen
in Hoboken, NJ.
Verb Tenses
You can tell your readers in present or future
tense what they will encounter, depending on
what makes sense:
[At the end of ch. 2]: The third chapter will
provide details of the research method.
At the start of ch. 3]: The third chapter provides
details of the research method.
[At the end of ch. 3]: The third chapter provided
details of the research method.
Dissertation Templates
We have preformatted templates for both APA 5th
and 6th editions to help you.
Basic Dissertation Template
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm
Be Aware, Be Very Aware
• Most of this is in the Proposal and Dissertation
Guidebook, which you can download from
http://catalog.waldenu.edu/index.php
• Don’t assume your faculty members will mark
APA mistakes.
• Get copyright permission EARLY from copyright
holders. A good source of information is the ProQuest website at
http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/copyright/
Margins
Left margin
is 1.5 in.
You must change
Word’s default:
Go to File, Page
Setup, Margins.
My Wonderful Research
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
___________________
1 in. from
the edge
of paper
for top,
bottom,
right
side
margins
Preliminary Pages
Order and Pagination for APA 6
• Abstract title page (no page number)
• Abstract (no page numbers)
• Title page (no page number)
• Dedication (optional; no page number)
• Acknowledgements (optional; no page
number)
• Table of Contents (i)
• List of Tables ( )
• List of Figures ( )
About Fonts
• Use a serif font (Times New Roman,
Palatino, or Book Antiqua, for example.
Use the same font throughout.
• This is not the place to get creative and
use lots of different fonts.
• Per APA, do not use bold underlines.
Table text can be in a sans serif font
such as Arial.
Abstract Guidelines
•
•
•
•
Has its own title page
Limited to one page
Contains no citations
All numbers, except those beginning a sentence) are
expressed as numerals
• Use it to show four things:
1. What you studied, specifically, and why.
2. What you did, specifically (methodology).
3. What you found out about what you studied.
4. Implications for practice, research, social change.
Abstract Guidelines
• Summarize the key research question(s) in the
declarative.
• Describe, briefly, the overall research design and
methods.
• Identify the key results, one or two conclusions, and
recommendations that capture the heart of the
research
• Conclude with a statement on the implications for
positive social change.
• Abstract must be one page. Abstract Primer available at
http://researchcenter.waldenu.edu/
Pagination Guidelines
Acknowledgments
I want to thank my mother and
father, who believed in me, and
my 11th grade math teacher, who
said I would be lucky to get a job
at Wal-Mart. My iguana, Spike,
should not go unmentioned. He
had a way of staring at me that
kept me focused on my writing.
No page number on this
optional page.
Table of Contents
List of Tables…………………………………………v
Chapter 1: Introduction………………………….……1
Background of the Study……………………………...2
Author’s Experience With Air Guitar……...…….3
The 20th Century Shortage of Play Time…….......4
Problem Statement…………………………….……..5
i
Having trouble with the dot
leader?
Use one of the nifty templates, or refer to the
“Formatting the Table of Contents” document.
Don’t do it with periods. Period.
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm
APA 6 Heading Levels
Chapter Heading (L0)
Centered, Bold, Uppercase and Lowercase
Heading (L1)
Flush Left, Upper- and Lowercase Heading (L2)
Indented, bold, italic, sentence case (L3)
Only L0, L1, and L2 headings are in the TOC.
Chapter 2: Literature Review [L0]
Church Basement Supper Food in Minnesota [L1]
The hot dish has been a staple at Lutheran Church suppers for decades .
. . . Molds made with jello and fruit are another favorite at these gatherings.
Hot Dish [L2]
German and Scandinavian families loved to mix bland, white foods into
one serving dish . . . .
Ingredients of hot dish through the decades. [L3] Cream of mushroom
or celery canned soups feature largely in any self-respecting hot dish . . .
What to serve with hot dish. [L4] A nice salad made with iceberg lettuce
goes nicely . . . .
Jello Salad [L2]
The origin of Jello molds, also called Jello salads, is unknown . . . .
36
Do’s and Don’ts
•
•
Tables and Figures
Some common APA rules that you’ll hear
repeated a million times during your
program at Walden.
Everything You Wanted To Know About
Tables and Figures But Were Afraid To Ask
•
•
•
Try to keep tables on one page. If you need
to, move a table to the next page rather
than having it break across a page. It’s OK
to have some white space at the bottom of
a page.
Yes, you can go landscape if need be.
Keep tables and figures within the page
margins.
Everything You Wanted To Know About
Tables and Figures But Were Afraid To Ask
•
Yes, you can switch fonts to a sans serif (e.g.,
Arial) and go as small as 8 points but don’t go
bigger than 12 points. Keep the table number and
title the same point size as the narrative text.
•
Tables and figures are numbered consecutively
throughout the narrative (Table 1, Table 2, Table
3, etc. or Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3, etc.)
Go figure . . .
• The information in the manual is great; use the
examples to guide you (APA 6th, pp. 125-167).
• Any graphic is called a figure, not a chart or a
graph.
• Figure captions are more descriptive than table
titles.
Go figure . . .
• Mention the figure in the text before you place
the figure. Use the figure number not the figure
below or the next figure.
• Figures are inserted into the narrative as close
to the text that introduces them as is practical.
• Do not place a figure in the middle of a
paragraph.
•Figures are labeled underneath the figure.
Table 2
General Characteristic of Participants and Sites
estimated
%of African
yrs. in origin hygienist? number treatment work urban or
practice
of staff rooms stations suburban
A-1
5
south
no
4
4
3
A-2
7
midwest
no
2
3
B-1
14
midwest
no
5
6
B-2
14
midwest
no
5
C-1
17
west
yes
C-2
17
midwest
D-1
25
D-2
25
E-1
E-2
American
patients
estimated
overall
specialty? size (sq. ft.)
suburban
70%
yes
2000
3
urban
98%
no
1250
5
suburban
60%
no
2000
4
5
suburban
75%
no
2000
3
3
3
suburban
98%
no
800
yes
3
3
3
suburban
50%
no
1000
midwest
no
3
3
3
urban
70%
no
1000
midwest
no
5
6
2
urban
85%
no
1500
27
northeast
no
5
6
3
urban
99%
yes
2000
29
south
no
12
6
15
urban
98%
no
1250
4.4
4.4
4.5
Avg. 18.0
80%
1480
90
80
70
60
50
East
West
North
40
30
20
10
0
1st Qtr
2nd Qtr
3rd Qtr
4th Qtr
Figure 2. A model showing the critical elements for successful
course development in online education.
As for tables . . .
• Use the examples in the manual to guide you (APA 6th 5.075.19).
• Tables are inserted right there in text, not in appendices (unless
it’s supplemental stuff the reader doesn’t need in the narrative).
• “An informative table supplements—instead of duplicates—
the text. . . . Discuss only the table’s highlights; if you discuss
every item of the table in text, the table is unnecessary”
• You need written permission to adapt or reprint a table or
figure from copyrighted sources not in the public domain.
• Tables are labeled above; table number is plain type, table title
is on next line (double space), title case, italic.
All this would work better in a table.
There were 39 out of 50 surveys returned from individuals
who taught in a Head Start setting; all were female. Head
Start participants’ ages ranged from 26 to 65 years with a
mean of 41.74 and a standard deviation of 11.52.
Education levels corresponded to the following categories:
(a) 54.8% had bachelor’s degree, (b) 24.3% master’s degree,
and (c) 20.9% community college. Ethnic classifications
were as follows: (a) (b) 46.2% Hispanic, (c) 28.2%
Asian/Pacific Islander, (d) 10.3% African-American, (e)
7.7% Caucasian, and (f) 7.7% other.
Too many lines; use only horizontal lines, per APA.
Make sure all text fits in the table cells.



Data from SPSS
APA Style
Quick APA Review
• Remember: Normally, numbers 10 and
higher are written as numerals. Nine
and lower are written out. Main
exceptions: (a) units of time or
measurement
• Use a percent sign unless at the start of
a sentence.
• Use a serial comma. It’s a little thing,
but you gotta do it.
• The facility had 150 managers, 75 of whom, or
50%, were unnecessary.
• The study was conducted over a 3-week
period, with two 30-minute sessions each day.
• In this phenomenological study, five men and
four women suffering from toenail fungus were
interviewed.
• The three preferred food choices of State Fair
goers are chocolate chip cookies, anything on
a stick, and deep-fried cheese curds.
The three preferred food choices of State Fair
goers are (a) chocolate chip cookies, (b)
anything on a stick, and (c) deep-fried cheese
curds.
The top three preferred food choices of State
Fair goers, in order of preference, are:
1. Chocolate chip cookies.
2. Anything on a stick.
3. Deep-fried cheese curds.
Little APA Things
• Italicize statistical abbreviations, like p, t test, n and
N, F ratio, and so on.
• Lowercase for chi-square. Lowercase for job titles.
Lower case for theories (theory of learned
behavior).
• Lowercase for disorders or diseases (bipolar
disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, multiple
sclerosis).
• Capitalize nouns followed by letters or numbers
(Chapter 1, Table 1, Figure 1, Appendix A, Group A,
Research Question 1, etc.)
A Few Things About Appendices
Appendices per APA 6th
• Your committee should tell you what you need there,
what goes in the narrative, and what’s not needed at
all.
• Paying for and getting permission to reprint an
instrument to use in your study is different from getting
permission to include it in the dissertation.
• Appendices are labeled A, B, C, and so on. Tables in
an appendix are numbered A1, B2, B3, C2, and so on,
and are listed in the list of tables at the end of the table
of contents. All appendices are referred to in the
narrative, in the order they appear at the end of the
manuscript.
Some Easy APA Mechanics
• Check the tables in Chapter 4 (section 4.13)
for rules on hyphenation. In general, words
with prefixes such as non, semi, pre, post,
anti, multi, and inter are not hyphenated:
pretest, posttest, antibiotic, antisocial,
nonprofit, semipro, multiphased, subsample,
but self-esteem, self-concept.
• Possessives of words ending in s add ’s:
Rogers’s,
• Italicize most statistical abbreviations. And
it’s t test, like that.
Some Easy Mechanics
• Use italics, not underlining.
• Use a serif font, like Times Roman, Palatino,
Book Antiqua, or Courier.
• Stick to 12 points except in tables and
figures, if necessary.
• Use first person for self-reference.
• Avoid contractions (e.g., spell out do not).
• Use a serial comma.
Other Formatting Guidelines
• Dissertations use double spacing for the table of
contents, block quotes, and the reference list.
• Text in tables may be single-spaced for readability,
and table titles or figure captions, if they go over
one line, may be single spaced.
• Numbered or bulleted lists may be formatted using
Microsoft Word’s automatic list format.
Resources, Resources, and More
Resources
• Writing Center
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu
[email protected] for questions about course papers and KAMs
[email protected] for questions about dissertations or doctoral studies
WIRE for appointments to have drafts reviewed.
Form and Style checklist and templates
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/549.htm
http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/57.htm
• Research Center
http://researchcenter.waldenu.edu
• APA Style
http://www.apastyle.org