Transcript Practical Tips for Writing an Article

Practical Tips for Writing a
Journal Article
Prepared by Matthew Richardson
NSF GK-12 Fellow
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
2007
Disclaimer
• Please remember as you read this that I
am a scientist. My publishing experiences
have been largely with scientific journals
and many examples I give will be scienceoriented rather than education-based (and
I also use examples from some of my
publications and cite them, at the risk of
seeming vain, in order to avoid copyright
infringement). I feel, however, that many
of the following suggestions apply to many
journals, educational, scientific, or
otherwise.
So you think you have an idea for a
manuscript?
• Background research
– Is there an audience for your idea?
– Is your idea high-quality?
• Quality test for an education manuscript: do you
use the idea and would the idea be a good project
10 years from now (since so much is available
electronically, projects can be accessed for longer
periods and must be useable for longer periods)?
• Run it by colleagues who will critically review your
idea. Would they use it in their classroom?
More Background Research
– Has your idea already been published by
someone else? Check all appropriate
sources.
• Even if someone previously published your idea,
your work still may be publishable:
– Can you extend the idea?
– Can you refute some of the information in print?
– If it is a controversial topic, even supporting the published
paper could make your paper publishable.
– Is your project in a different environment or research
system than what is in print?
» E.g., An educational study that used rural students
as their subjects may end up with different results
than if they had used urban students.
Where to submit?
• Before collecting data or writing the manuscript,
get an idea of appropriate venues for submitting
your manuscript.
– Do not initially tailor your idea and format to fit only
one journal. Read a range of journals to get a sense
of what type of information you will need for
publication.
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Qualitative data?
Quantitative data?
Student feedback
Statistics?
Photographs?
Permission slips from students?
Permits for using city, state, or national lands?
After you complete data collection, but
before writing the manuscript…
• Select the venue
– People in academia try to publish in what we
call “high-impact journals.” These journals
are well-respected because of the quality of
the articles. There is a system that ranks the
impact of journals. If you are familiar with the
rankings and use them to select a venue, fine,
but let’s discuss better ways to pick a journal.
How to pick a journal
• Best way: Is your work appropriate? If not,
the manuscript will immediately be
rejected by the editor and will not be seen
by reviewers.
– Visit the journal’s website. They often list their
“aims and scope” and tell you what types of
articles they do and do not publish.
• E.g., You use a great “how-to” project in your
biology class. Many educational journals, such as
Teaching Issues in Experimental Ecology, are
focused on educational theory and do not accept
“how-to” articles. There are venues for practically
every type of paper, however, you just need to do
your research.
Other ways to tell if your work is
appropriate for a particular venue…
– Does your work meet the quality standards of
the publication?
• E.g. Top journals only publish important projects
that have statistical results shown to be highly
significant. If your data are fuzzy, it is best to aim a
lower.
– Do you cite other articles from the journal? A
journal that you rely on heavily for background
research is often an appropriate place to
submit your work.
• Get bonus points: Journals also like it when you
cite them because it may increase their “impact.”
Have OCD when it comes to details
• Before you begin writing, read the author
guidelines (on-line or in a hard copy of the
journal).
• While you are writing, follow the author
guidelines and formatting exactly.
– I have never known someone to be rejected solely on
formatting, but there are always stories of someone
getting rejected, or at the very least, irritating editors,
because formatting was ignored.
• Read other articles from the journal and check formatting.
The author guidelines are often vague, but each journal has
its own formatting and copying formatting from (recently!)
published works is a sure way to get everything correct.
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Common sections of a scientific
article (In the order they normally
appear)
Title
Abstract
Keywords
Introduction
Materials & Methods
Results
Discussion, Conclusions or Implications
Acknowledgements
References cited
Tables
Figures
Which sections do you need for the journal you
selected?
A good title tells what the paper is
about
• Informative: describes the subject and
perhaps the organism used or research
environment
• Specific: differentiates your research from
other published papers on the subject
• Concise: gives only important details
Informative
• Poor – “A Biodiversity Lesson”
• Better – “Teaching students about
biodiversity by studying the correlation
between plant and arthropod biodiversity”
Specific
• Poor – “The life of kingsnakes in Illinois.”
• Better – “Habitat use and activity of prairie
kingsnakes (Lampropeltis calligaster
calligaster) in Illinois.”
Concise
• Poor – “The effects of a juvenile hormone
analog, pyriproxyfen, on molting,
development, survivorship, longevity, and
reproduction of the apterous form of
soybean aphid (Aphis glycines). “
• Better – “Effects of a juvenile hormone
analog, pyriproxyfen, on the apterous form
of soybean aphid (Aphis glycines).”
Abstract
1) Start with motivation or justification if space
allows (makes the reader think the paper might
be interesting)
2) State the objective
3) Summarize essential materials and objectives
4) Summarize results, but statistics not normally
presented.
5) End with important conclusions and
implications.
– #2-5 Makes the reader want to read the paper
because it is interesting.
Abstract
• The abstract should be a stand-alone
summary of the entire paper.
– Although it appears first, write the abstract
last.
• Be specific and concise.
– Many journals have a limit on length.
Common mistakes in abstracts
• Different font sizes
• Duplicate words
– E.g., in the in the
• Punctuation errors
• Poor grammar/word choice
• References in the abstract
Common mistakes in abstracts
• Use of numerals to start a sentence
– E.g., 12 children took part in the study.
• Use of words that do not exist
• Undefined abbreviations
• Contradictory information
• Poor structure
Key words
• Often come at the end of an abstract.
• Used for indexing purposes (search terms that
will help someone find your article) and thus,
often should not overlap with the title (the title is
normally automatically included in databases).
– E.g., The title is, “Effects of Grassland Restoration on
Local Abundances of Small Mammals and Snakes in
Illinois.” Potential key words for this article could
include key species, habitat, and restoration methods
such as, tallgrass prairie, deer mice, blue racers, and
prescribed burning.
Writing the body of the paper
• An effective writer is clear in their message.
• An effective writer anticipates potential questions
from reviewers and readers and answers those
questions in the paper.
• An effective writer correctly interprets their data
and delivers an accurate message.
• An effective writer uses efficient formatting and
writing to save the reader time.
Introduction
• Start with a “hook” to interest the reader.
• Summarize background research.
• Point out what is lacking in the published
literature (where is the gap in knowledge?)
Introduction
• State your objectives or hypotheses and
how it fills a need.
– Justify your work.
• Some journals also want a preview of your
results at end of the intro.
Materials & methods
• Give a complete description of all
materials and methods that are essential
to that particular publication.
– Often you do a lot of work and not all of it is
necessary to include. Only put things in the
materials and methods that will be important
for interpreting the results.
– A complete description should allow someone
else to repeat your project.
Materials & methods
• Use appropriate statistics and discuss
what tests you used.
• For equipment it is often necessary to
report the company and its location in
parentheses following product.
– E.g. A veterinarian implanted Model SB-2T
transmitters (Holohil Systems Ltd., Carp,
Ontario) into snakes.
• Use appropriate abbreviations for units of
measurement.
Materials & methods
• Use singular rather than plural.
– E.g. Instead of…“We located snakes every 48
h until they moved to the hibernaculum area
and ceased most activity.”
Use …“We located each snake every 48 h
until it moved to the hibernaculum area and
ceased most activity.”
Results
• Everything you say you do in the methods
should have an entry in the results.
– Exception: Information in tables or figures
should be referred to, but not repeated, in the
text.
• Statistics are often difficult to understand,
so clearly present them.
Results – writing numbers
• Use Arabic numerals for a number with a
unit of measurement.
– E.g. 193 d, 9 g, > 2 m
• Do not start a sentence with a numeral.
– E.g. 20 students participated in the activity.
Results – writing numbers
• Spell out numbers less than 10 if not
associated with a unit of measurement,
but write the numeral for numbers 10 or
greater.
– E.g. In group two there were seven students.
– E.g. In group two there were 10 students.
Discussion, conclusions, or
implications
• Explain the results of the work in terms of
the objectives stated in the introduction.
• Do not repeat data.
• Support your conclusions with published
literature.
Discussion, conclusions, or
implications
• Contrast your conclusions with published
literature.
• Describe limitations of your work.
• Describe implications or applications of
your work.
References cited
• This section is the most difficult to format. Each
journal has different formatting instructions for
citations.
• Read the author instructions for appropriate
formatting and check recent issues.
• Check to make sure every space, period,
comma, etc. are perfect. This section can drive
editors mad if not properly formatted.
Tables and figures
• Each journal presents these in different
ways. Check their instructions and recent
issues.
• Tables and figures should have enough
detail to stand alone (i.e., should be
understood without reading the paper).
Tables and figures
• Present only important data.
• Use as many as necessary, but not more
than is necessary.
• Avoid complex tables and figures.
Improve your writing…
• The next slides present general
information to keep in mind for all sections
of the paper.
Tense?
• Introduction, Materials & Methods, and
Results: paste tense
• Discussion: present tense
Paragraph structure
• Discuss only one subject in a paragraph.
• Start with a good topic sentence that
creates a smooth transition from the
preceding paragraph.
• Use appropriate sentence structure
– Just like the overall paper, the sentence
structure should be concise. Avoid excess
verbiage and compound sentences.
Paragraph structure
• Use consistent style
• Use the same organizational pattern for
successive sentences
• Use parallel structure
– E.g., use “than” or “as” in a comparison
– E.g., use “whereas” or “however” in a contrast
– E.g. In lists, “Captured mammals were weighed,
marked, and released,” NOT “Mammals were
weighed, marked, and captured mammals were
released.”
• It is not easier for the reader if you vary style,
format, or construction of your paragraphs and
sentences.
Make your writing easier to read
• Choose the right words:
– That are accurate (say what you mean)
– That are appropriate (fit well with the other
words)
– That are familiar (easy to read and
understand)
Examples of familiar words
• Instead of…
–
–
–
–
–
Commence
Prioritize
Finalize
Terminate
Utilize (this word
drives some reviewers
crazy)
• Use…
–
–
–
–
–
Begin
Rank
Finish
End
Use
Avoid jargon
• Use technical terms only when necessary
• Say it simply and in plain language
Avoid passive sentences
• Instead of…
– “Sheet checks
involved lifting up
sheets and collecting
all snakes found
underneath.”
• Use…
– “We checked sheets
by lifting them up and
collecting all snakes
found underneath.”
Tighten, tighten, tighten your writing
• It costs money to publish. These costs are
absorbed as page charges by the writer (I
have paid $55-$120 per page) or the
publisher. Either way, tighten your writing
to keep it as short as possible (remember,
this makes it efficient for readers, too).
Tighten your writing
• Eliminate waste words (words which say
nothing).
– Especially the word “the” which is overused.
If you edit your writing and just eliminate the
word “the” when possible, it will tighten your
writing.
• Eliminate vague words (words that cannot
be quantified or do not add to your
understanding).
Eliminate redundant words (words
whose meaning are already clear)
• Instead of…
– different alternatives
– completely eliminate
– refer back
• Use…
– alternatives
– eliminate
– refer
Use one word for a phrase
• Instead of…
–
–
–
–
–
due to the fact that
prior to the start of
on a regular basis
despite the fact that
in the event that
• Use…
–
–
–
–
–
because
before
regularly
although
if
Write in the first person
• In many English classes we were taught to
avoid writing in first person. In journals,
however, you did the work and you must
write in first person. This also helps your
writing to be more direct and easily
understood.
Ethics in publishing
• Never fabricate data.
• Never falsify data.
– E.g. Do not throw out data points that “do not
look right.”
• Do not plagiarize.
– Reword (and even then attribute the source).
– Direct quotes are rarely used, but make sure
you use quotation marks and properly cite the
source.
Authorship issues – who gets to be
an author?
• While this may not seem directly related to
writing, I have had authorship dilemmas at
every stage of my academic career, so I
am including it.
• Authorship is not clearly defined by many
journals or societies and different labs
adhere to different policies.
Authorship
• For inclusion as an author, they normally
must make a substantial contribution in
one (or all) of the following areas:
1) Conception of the ideas or experimental
design.
2) Execution of the study
3) Analysis or interpretation of data
4) Writing of the manuscript
• The person who writes the bulk of the manuscript
tends to be first author.
Who is not an author?
• Contributing only the following is not enough to
be an author:
– Editing of the paper
– Providing funding, equipment or lab space
– Being an advisor
• But, advisors often do contribute in other ways, too.
– Lab technicians: While they often do the bulk of the
labor, they normally do not have intellectual input into
the project.
• The acknowledgements section is where you
thank the people who contributions in these
ways.
Authorship order
• Normally authors are listed in decreasing
order of their input.
– The senior author is the first author. They
normally had the largest input into the project.
– Exception: sometimes on multi-authored
papers from a lab, if the head of the lab is not
the senior author, then they are often listed
last, which signifies their position.
– The first author is normally the corresponding
author because they know the most about the
project.
How the review process works…
• When you finish the paper, follow the journal’s submission
instructions. Most journals want the manuscript sent as an email attachment or they have a website for uploading the
article.
• You submission is assigned an editor who is responsible for
finding reviewers (normally 2-3).
• After the reviewers weigh in, the editor makes the final
decision about the acceptance of the manuscript (the editor
normally follows the reviewers’ recommendations, but not
always).
• The review process can be slow. Reviews will normally take
2.5-4 months. If you do not hear from the editor by the end of
4 months, it is appropriate to contact the editor and kindly ask
for an update.
How a journal will respond
• There are normally three responses you
get from a journal.
– Accepted with no revisions (pretty much never
happens)
– Accepted with revisions (the editor and
reviewers will list specific items that need to
be addressed before final acceptance)
– Rejected
If you get rejected…
• Do not despair, it happens
• Read what the reviewers wrote
– Fix the problems (unless they are really fatal
problems that doom the project)
• Research other “lower impact” journals
that would be appropriate
• Reformat according to the journal’s
instructions
• Resubmit
References
• Grossman, M. 2005. Techniques for writing and presenting a
scientific paper. University of Illinois, Urbana, IL. 186 pp.
• Richardson, M. L., and J. Hari. 2007. Teaching students about
biodiversity by studying the correlation between plant and
arthropod biodiversity. The American Biology Teacher.
(Submitted)
• Richardson, M. L., and D. M. Lagos. 2007. Effects of a
juvenile hormone analog, pyriproxyfen, on the apterous form
of soybean aphid (Aphis glycines). Journal of Applied
Entomology. (In press)
• Richardson, M. L., J. D. Brawn, and P. J. Weatherhead. 2007.
Effects of grassland restoration on local abundances of small
mammals and snakes in Illinois. Ecological Restoration.
(Submitted)
• Richardson, M. L., P. J. Weatherhead, and J. D. Brawn. 2006.
Habitat use and activity of prairie kingsnakes (Lampropeltis
calligaster calligaster) in Illinois. Journal of Herpetology.
40(4):423-428.