Transcript Nigeria
NIGERIA "Not all of us will hold government appointments, but all of us can contribute to the new dawn in Nigeria." -President Olusegun Obasanjo Nigeria: A study in contrasts Strong democracy, susceptible to totalitarian rule Vast resources, but 70% live in poverty Population split evenly between Islam and Christianity Dozens of ethnicities within borders. Political Culture Patron clientelism Undeveloped civil society Tension between modernity and tradition Religious conflict Geographic Influence Located in West Africa Population 120 million Ethnic groups divided into Zones: NW NE Middle Belt SW SE So. zone Change and conflict Ethnic identities source of conflict Corruption among political elite General Abacha (de facto pres. 1993-1998) Promise to transfer power when country was “stable”. Elections in 1999, Pres. Olusegun Obasanjo. (reelected 2003) Democracy?? (elections considered corrupt) Public Authority & Political Power “National Question”: differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed. In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and authoritarianism Constitutionalism First constitution written in 1914 Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995 Current constitution written in 1995 has been heavily amended since its inception Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer Legitimacy Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult Fragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic, regional, and/or religious lines (250-400 ethnic groups). Contradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority Little or no public trust in leaders Corruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993) General Sani Abacha (1993-1998) Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions” Trade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River & Ocean Access Influence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle Kinship-based Politics – village key political entity Complex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north) Democratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo. Slave Trade- in the north and southwest, slave traders found people willing to trade their enemies for guns and modern technology Geographic Influences Northwest – dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim; low education and suspicious of modernizing Northeast – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim (follow Sharia law) Middle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians. Southwest – Yoruba dominates the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions; agricultural region. Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as well Southern Zone – area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups. Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions” Authoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people (also gave Africans no model of democratic government to follow when independence came) Interventionist State – colonialists trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers. Individualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community Western Style Education – introduction of formal education created a literate society Colonial Era continued Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south. Intensification of Ethnic Politics – emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others. Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20th century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions” Parliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president Intensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power. 2nd Republic – 1979 based on presidential/congressional model, very centralized; generals only successful at enriching themselves than building a country Independence Era continued Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970) Personalized Rule/Corruption Federalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty. Economic dependence on Oil Independence Era continued 2nd Republic born in 1979 by General Obasanjo Created new capital of Abuja and more states created to defuse rivalries 1983 new Generals take over until 1993 Election 1993, which was seen as honest, was annuled by the military, appointed a president and then overthrew him General Abacha tried to become President until a “heart attack” forced him out A new military leader emerged in 1999 and announced the 3rd Republic and relinquished power in 1999 Obasanjo won the election Political Culture Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM) Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant his clients a portion of the oil revenues. State Control/Underdeveloped Society Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside government control. In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracy Modernity vs. Tradition Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era Religious Conflict Geographic Influence Societal Characteristics & Concerns Poverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty. Gap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria no growth is being made to alleviate this gap. Health Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria. Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women) Political Cleavages Ethnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languages Religion – Islam, Christianity, and native religions. Region – follow along ethnic and religious lines Urban vs. Rural Differences – most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in cities Social Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles. Political Participation Patron-Clientelism Voting Behavior Attitudes toward Government Protests and Social Movements Prebendalism Personalized system of rule Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms” Large patronage networks based on personal loyalty Local government officials gain support of villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron bosses Most favors exchanged by political elites Corruption and informal influence rampant Does however represent established form of political participation Voting Behavior Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959 Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellation Political parties are numerous and fluid Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990s Local, state, & national elections have continued however since the late 1990s About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 election Women vote in roughly equal numbers of men, but are underrepresented in government Attitudes toward Government Citizens do not Trust Nigerian Government Corruption Military Rule Lack of Civil Society No commitment toward Democracy Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Authoritarianism) Protests & Social Movements Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa) Targeted the international oil companies, especially in the Niger River Delta In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days Ethnic groups Women’s Movement President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic offices Nigerian legislature has very low female representation 6.4% in House of Representatives 3.7% in Senate