Brooker Chapter 12 - Volunteer State Community College
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Genetics: Analysis and Principles
Robert J. Brooker
CHAPTER 12
GENE TRANSCRIPTION
AND
RNA MODIFICATION
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Transcription literally means the act or
process of making a copy
DNA sequence to RNA sequence
1. DNA sequences provide the underlying
information
Signals for the start and end of transcription
2. Proteins recognize these sequences and
carry out the process
Other proteins modify the RNA transcript to make it
functionally active
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12-2
Gene Expression Requires
Base Sequences
At the molecular level, a gene is a transcriptional
unit
During gene expression, different types of base
sequences perform different roles
Figure 12.1 shows a common organization of
sequences within a bacterial gene and its transcript
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12-4
Bacterial transcriptional unit
• Start codon: specifies the first amino acid in a
protein sequence, usually a formylmethionine
(in bacteria) or a methionine (in eukaryotes)
Signals the end of
protein synthesis
• Bacterial mRNA may be polycistronic, which
means it encodes two or more polypeptides
Figure 12.1
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A eukaryotic gene and its transcript
Gene Expression Requires
Base Sequences
The strand that is actually transcribed is termed the
template strand
The opposite strand is called the coding strand or
the sense strand
The base sequence is identical to the RNA transcript
Except for the substitution of uracil in RNA for thymine in DNA
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12-6
The Stages of Transcription
Transcription occurs in three stages
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
These steps involve protein-DNA interactions
Proteins such as RNA polymerase interact with DNA
sequences
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12-7
Initiation
The promoter functions as a recognition
site for transcription factors
The transcription factors enable RNA
polymerase to bind to the promoter
forming a closed promoter complex
Following binding, the DNA is denatured
into a bubble known as the open promoter
complex, or simply an open complex
Elongation
RNA polymerase slides along the DNA in
an open complex to synthesize the RNA
transcript
Termination
Figure 12.2
A termination signal is reached that
causes RNA polymerase to dissociated
from the DNA
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The initiation of transcription at a eukaryotic promoter
RNA Transcripts Have Different
Functions
A structural gene is a one that encodes a
polypeptide
When such genes are transcribed, the product is an RNA
transcript called messenger RNA (mRNA)
Other RNA transcripts becomes part of a complex
that contains protein subunits
For example
Ribosomes
Spliceosomes
Signal recognition particles
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12-10
12-11
12.2 TRANSCRIPTION IN
BACTERIA
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12-12
Promoters
Promoters are DNA sequences that “promote” gene
expression
Rate
Start site
Promoters are typically located just upstream of the
site where transcription of a gene actually begins
The bases in a promoter sequence are numbered in
relation to the transcription start site
Refer to Figure 12.3
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12-13
Sequence elements that play
a key role in transcription
Bases preceding
this are numbered
in a negative
direction
There is no base
numbered 0
Bases to the right are
numbered in a
positive direction
Sometimes termed the
Pribnow box, after its
discoverer
Figure 12.3 The conventional numbering system of promoters
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12-14
For many bacterial
genes, there is a good
correlation between
the rate of RNA
transcription and the
degree of agreement
with the consensus
sequences
The most commonly
occurring bases
Figure 12.4 Examples of –35 and –10 sequences within a variety of
bacterial promoters
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12-15
Initiation of Bacterial Transcription
RNA polymerase is the enzyme that catalyzes the
synthesis of RNA
In E. coli, the RNA polymerase holoenzyme is
composed of
Core enzyme
Sigma factor
Four subunits = a2bb’
One subunit = s
These subunits play distinct functional roles
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12-16
Initiation of Bacterial Transcription
The RNA polymerase holoenzyme binds loosely to
the DNA
It then scans along the DNA, until it encounters a
promoter region
When it does, the sigma factor recognizes both the –35
and –10 regions
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12-17
Amino acids within the
a helices hydrogen
bond with bases in the
promoter sequence
elements
Figure 12.5
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12-18
The binding of the RNA polymerase to the promoter
forms the closed complex
Then, the open complex is formed when the
TATAAT box is unwound
A short RNA strand is made within the open
complex
The sigma factor is released at this point
This marks the end of initiation
The core enzyme now slides down the DNA to
synthesize an RNA strand
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12-19
Figure 12.6
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12-20
Elongation in Bacterial Transcription
The RNA transcript is synthesized during the
elongation step
The DNA strand used as a template for RNA
synthesis is termed the template or noncoding strand
The opposite DNA strand is called the coding strand
It has the same base sequence as the RNA transcript
Except that T in DNA corresponds to U in RNA
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12-21
Similar to the
synthesis of DNA
via DNA polymerase
Figure 12.7
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Termination of Bacterial
Transcription
Termination is the end of RNA synthesis
It occurs when the short RNA-DNA hybrid of the open
complex is forced to separate
This releases the newly made RNA as well as the RNA polymerase
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12-24
Eukaryotic RNA Polymerases
Nuclear DNA is transcribed by three different RNA
polymerases
RNA pol I
Transcribes all rRNA genes (except for the 5S rRNA)
RNA pol II
Transcribes all structural genes
Thus, synthesizes all mRNAs
Transcribes some snRNA genes
RNA pol III
Transcribes all tRNA genes
And the 5S rRNA gene
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12-29
Fig. 12.10a(TE Art)
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Structure of a bacterial
RNA polymerase
Structure of a eukaryotic
RNA polymerase II
Sequences of Eukaryotic
Structural Genes
Eukaryotic promoter sequences are more variable
and often more complex than those of bacteria
For structural genes, at least three features are
found in most promoters
Transcriptional start site
TATA box
Regulatory elements
Refer to Figure 12.11
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12-31
Figure 12.11
The core promoter is relatively short
It consists of the TATA box
Usually an
adenine
Important in determining the precise start point for transcription
The core promoter by itself produces a low level of
transcription
This is termed basal transcription
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12-32
Figure 12.11
Usually an
adenine
Regulatory elements affect the binding of RNA polymerase
to the promoter
They are of two types
Enhancers
Silencers
Stimulate transcription
Inhibit transcription
They vary in their locations but are often found in the
–50 to –100 region
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12-33
Sequences of Eukaryotic
Structural Genes
cis-acting elements
DNA sequences that exert their effect only on
nearby genes
Example: TATA box, enhancers and silencers
trans-acting elements
Regulatory proteins that bind to such DNA
sequences
Transcription factors
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12-34
RNA Polymerase II and its
Transcription Factors
Three categories of proteins are required for basal
transcription to occur at the promoter
RNA polymerase II
Five different proteins called general transcription factors
(GTFs)
A protein complex called mediator
Figure 12.12 shows the assembly of transcription
factors and RNA polymerase II at the TATA box
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12-35
Figure 12.12
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12-36
A closed complex
Figure 12.12
TFIIH plays a major role in the formation
of the open complex
It has several subunits that
perform different functions
One subunit hydrolyzes ATP and phosphorylates a
domain in RNA pol II known as the carboxyl terminal
domain (CTD)
This releases the contact between TFIIB and
RNA pol II
Other subunits act as helicases
Promote the formation of the open complex
RNA pol II can now
proceed to the
elongation stage
Released after the
open complex is
formed
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12-37
Basal transcription apparatus
RNA pol II + the five GTFs
The third component for transcription is a large
protein complex termed mediator
It mediates interactions between RNA pol II and various
regulatory transcription factors
Its subunit composition is complex and variable
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12-38
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Chromatin Structure and
Transcription
The compaction of DNA to form chromatin can be
an obstacle to the transcription pocess
Most transcription occurs in interphase
Then, chromatin is found in 30 nm fibers that are
organized into radial loop domains
Within the 30 nm fibers, the DNA is wound around histone
octamers to form nucleosomes
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12-40
Chromatin Structure and
Transcription
The histone octamer is roughly five times smaller
than the complex of RNA pol II and the GTFs
The tight wrapping of DNA within the nucleosome
inhibits the function of RNA pol
To circumvent this problem, the chromatin structure
is significantly loosened during transcription
Two common mechanisms alter chromatin structure
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12-41
1. Covalent modification of histones
Amino terminals of histones are modified in various ways
Acetylation; phosphorylation; methylation
Adds acetyl groups, thereby
loosening the interaction
between histones and DNA
Figure 12.13
Removes acetyl groups,
thereby restoring a
tighter interaction
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12-42
2. ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling
The energy of ATP is used to alter the structure of
nucleosomes and thus make the DNA more accessible
Proteins are members of the
SWI/SNF family
Acronyms refer to the effects on yeast
when these enzyme are defective
Mutants in SWI are defective in
mating type switching
Mutants in SNF are
sucrose non-fermenters
Figure 12.13
These effects may significantly alter
gene expression
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12-43
12.4 RNA MODIFICATION
Analysis of bacterial genes in the 1960s and 1970s
revealed the following:
The sequence of DNA in the coding strand corresponds to
the sequence of nucleotides in the mRNA
This in turn corresponds to the sequence of amino acid in
the polypeptide
This is termed the colinearity of gene expression
Analysis of eukaryotic structural genes in the late
1970s revealed that they are not always colinear
with their functional mRNAs
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12-44
12.4 RNA MODIFICATION
Instead, coding sequences, called exons, are
interrupted by intervening sequences or introns
Transcription produces the entire gene product
Introns are later removed or excised
Exons are connected together or spliced
This phenomenon is termed RNA splicing
It is a common genetic phenomenon in eukaryotes
Occurs occasionally in bacteria as well
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12-45
12.4 RNA MODIFICATION
Aside from splicing, RNA transcripts can be modified
in several ways
For example
Trimming of rRNA and tRNA transcripts
5’ Capping and 3’ polyA tailing of mRNA transcripts
Refer to Table 12.3
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12-46
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A eukaryotic gene and its transcript
Trimming
Many nonstructural genes are initially transcribed
as a large RNA
This large RNA transcript is enzymatically cleaved
into smaller functional pieces
Figure 12.14 shows the processing of mammalian
ribosomal RNA
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12-48
This processing occurs
in the nucleolus
Functional RNAs that are key
in ribosome structure
Figure 12.14
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12-49
Endonuclease
(Endonuclease)
RNase P
(RNase D)
Found to contain both RNA
and protein subunits
However, RNA contains the
catalytic ability
Covalently
modified bases
Therefore, it is a ribozyme
Figure 12.15
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12-51
Experiment 12A: Identification of
Introns Via Microscopy
In the late 1970s, several research groups
investigated the presence of introns in eukaryotic
structural genes
One of these groups was led by Phillip Leder
Leder used electron microscopy to identify introns in
the b-globin gene
It had been cloned earlier
Leder used a strategy that involved hybridization
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12-52
Experiment 12A: Identification of
Introns Via Microscopy
Double-stranded DNA of the cloned b-globin gene
is first denatured
Then mixed with mature b-globin mRNA
The mRNA is complementary to the template
strand of the DNA
So the two will bind or hybridize to each other
If the DNA is allowed to renature, this complex will prevent the
reformation of the DNA double helix
Refer to Figure 12.16
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12-53
RNA displacement
loop
mRNA cannot hybridize to this
region
Because the intron has been
spliced out from the mRNA
Figure 12.16
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12-54
The Hypothesis
The b-globin gene from the mouse contains one
or more introns
Testing the Hypothesis
Refer to Figure 12.17
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12-55
Figure 12.17
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The Data
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Interpreting the Data
Hybridization caused the
formation of two R loops,
separated by a doublestranded DNA region
This suggests that the b-globin
gene contains introns
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12-58
Splicing
Three different splicing mechanisms have been
identified
Group I intron splicing
Group II intron splicing
Spliceosome
All three cases involve
Removal of the intron RNA
Linkage of the exon RNA by a phosphodiester bond
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12-59
Splicing among group I and II introns is termed
self-splicing
Splicing does not require the aid of enzymes
Instead the RNA itself functions as its own ribozyme
Group I and II self-splicing can occur in vitro
without the additional proteins
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12-60
Figure 12.18
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12-61
In eukaryotes, the transcription
of structural genes, produces a
long transcript known as
pre-mRNA
Also as heterogeneous nuclear
RNA (hnRNA)
This RNA is altered by splicing
and other modifications, before
it leaves the nucleus
Splicing in this case requires
the aid of a multicomponent
structure known as the
spliceosome
Figure 12.16
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12-62
Table 12.4 describes the occurrence of introns in
genes of different species
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12-63
Capping
Most mature mRNAs have a 7-methyl guanosine
covalently attached at their 5’ end
This event is known as capping
Cap-binding proteins play roles in the
Movement of some RNAs into the cytoplasm
Early stages of translation
Splicing of introns
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12-64
Figure 12.19
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12-65
Tailing
Most mature mRNAs have a string of adenine
nucleotides at their 3’ ends
The polyA tail is not encoded in the gene sequence
This is termed the polyA tail
It is added enzymatically after the gene is completely
transcribed
The attachment of the polyA tail is shown in
Figure 12.20
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12-68
Figure 12.20
Consensus sequence in
higher eukaryotes
Appears to be important in the
stability of mRNA and the
translation of the polypeptide
Length varies between species
From a few dozen adenines
to several hundred
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12-69
Pre-mRNA Splicing
The spliceosome is a large complex that splices
pre-mRNA
It is composed of several subunits known as
snRNPs (pronounced “snurps”)
Each snRNP contains small nuclear RNA and a set of
proteins
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12-70
Pre-mRNA Splicing
The subunits of a spliceosome carry out several
functions
1. Bind to an intron sequence and precisely recognize
the intron-exon boundaries
2. Hold the pre-mRNA in the correct configuration
3. Catalyze the chemical reactions that remove introns
and covalently link exons
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12-71
Intron RNA is defined by particular sequences within the
intron and at the intro-exon boundaries
The consensus sequences for the splicing of mammalian
pre-mRNA are shown in Figure 12.21
Sequences shown in bold
are highly conserved
Figure 12.21
Corresponds to the boxed
adenine in Figure 12.22
Serve as recognition sites for the
binding of the spliceosome
The pre-mRNA splicing mechanism is shown in Figure 12.22
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12-72
Intron loops out and
exons brought closer
together
Figure 12.22
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12-73
Intron will be degraded and
the snRNPs used again
Figure 12.22
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12-74
Alternative RNA splicing
Intron Advantage?
The biological advantage of alternative splicing is
that two (or more) polypeptides can be derived
from a single gene
This allows an organism to carry fewer genes in its
genome
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