Mass number Number of protons and neutrons Atomic number Number of protons

Atomic Structure

35 17 Cl Relative mass Charge location

Proton

1 + nucleus

Neutron

1 0 nucleus

Electron

negligible shells Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons - these atoms are called isotopes of that element.

The relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) compares the mass of atoms of the element, has the same value as the mass number.

The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.

The relative formula mass of a substance, in grams, is known as one mole of that substance

Same atomic number Different mass number

10 Questions

Using the following information about Cl and Mg answer the question below… 35 17 Cl 24 12 1.

What is the mass number of this chlorine atom?

2. What is the atomic number of this chlorine atom?

3. How many protons neutrons and electrons does this chlorine atom have?

4. What is the electron configuration of a chlorine atom?

5. What is the relative mass of an electron?

6. What is the charge on a neutron particle?

7. Where in the atomic structure are electrons located?

8. What is the relative atomic mass of chlorine?

9. Using 35 Cl and 37 Cl as examples explain what is meant by an isotope.

10. What is the relative formula mass (Mr) of MgCl 2 ?

Mg

Atomic Structure

Ionic bonding

Metal and non-metal – electron transfer Metals lose electrons and become positive ions.

Non-metals gain electrons and become negative ions.

Metals in group 1 form ions with a +1 charge Metals in group 2 form ions with a +2 charge … Non-metals in group 6 form ions with -2 charge Non-metals in group 7 form ions with -1 charge Writing formulae The charges on the positive and negative ions need to balance out Na + Cl  NaCl Mg 2+ O 2  Ca 2+ Cl Cl  MgO CaCl 2 sodium chloride magnesium oxide calcium chloride • • • Properties of ionic compounds Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in which there are strong electrostatic forces in all directions between oppositely charged ions.

These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many strong bonds.

When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and carry the current

10 Questions

1.

Do ionic bonds transfer or share electrons?

2. Ionic bonds exist between..

3. Elements in group 7 form ions with what charge?

4. Elements in group 3 form ions with what charge?

5. Ionic compounds are held together by strong forces in all directions between oppositely charged ions.

6. Under what 2 conditions will ionic compounds conduct electricity?

7. Draw a diagram to show the electron arrangement in a fluorine ion.

8. Draw a diagram to show the electron arrangement in a magnesium ion.

(a) Metals and Non-metals, (b) Non metals and Non-metals (c) Metals and Metals 9. What is the electron configuration of a fluorine ion?

10. What is the formula of calcium fluoride?

Ionic bonding

Covalent bonding - molecules

Hydrogen - H 2 (g) Oxygen - O 2 (g) Properties of covalent compounds A covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons • Chlorine - Cl 2 (g) Methane – CH 4 (g) • • Substances that consist of simple molecules are gases, liquids or solids that have relatively low melting points and boiling points They do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not have an overall electric charge. No free electrons or ions.

Hydrogen chloride HCl (g) Ammonia – NH 3 (g) Water – H 2 O (l)

10 Questions

1.

Do covalent bonds transfer or share electrons?

2. covalent bonds exist between..

(a) Metals and Non-metals, (b) Non metals and Non-metals (c) Metals and Metals 3. Elements in group 7 form covalent compounds with how many bonds?

4. Elements in group __ form covalent compounds with 3 bonds?

5. Why do covalent compounds NOT conduct electricity?

6. Are covalent bonds strong or weak?

7. Draw a diagram to show the electron arrangement in a carbon atom.

8. Draw a dot-cross diagram to show the bonding between 2 fluorine atoms 9. Draw a dot-cross diagram to show the bonding present in CH 4 ?

10. How many bonds does carbon form in CO 2 ?

Covalent bonding - molecules

Covalent bonding - Giant

Diamond (carbon only) All the atoms in these structures are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds and so they have very high melting points.

Graphite (carbon only) In graphite, each carbon atom bonds to three others, forming layers. The layers are free to slide over each other because there are no covalent bonds between the layers and so graphite is soft and slippery.

Silicon dioxide (Si + O) Sand In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms in a giant covalent structure, so diamond is very hard.

In graphite, one electron from each carbon atom is delocalised. These delocalised electrons allow graphite to conduct heat and electricity.

Giant covalent structures are also called macromolecules.

10 Questions

1. How many bonds do carbon atoms form in diamond?

2. How many bonds do carbon atoms form in graphite?

3. Why is graphite soft and slippery?

4. Why can graphite conduct electricity?

5. What can diamond not conduct electricity?

6. What is the chemical name for sand?

7. Giant covalent structures are also called __________?

8. Do giant covalent structures have high or low melting points?

9. Explain your answer to question 8.

10. Give a use for carbon nanotubes.

Covalent bonding - Giant

Metallic bonding

Shape memory Alloys can return to their original shape after being deformed, eg Nitinol used in dental braces.

Different sized atoms do not form a regular pattern.

• Metals Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern.

• • Alloys Alloys are usually made from two or more different metals. The different sized atoms of the metals distort the layers in the structure, making it more difficult for them to slide over each other and so make alloys harder than pure metals.

Conduction depends on the ability of electrons to move throughout the metal.

force heat

10 Questions

1. What type of bonding do metals have?

2. Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of atoms in a metal.

3. Do metals have a regular or irregular structure?

4. What is the main purpose of alloying metals?

5. Draw a diagram to show the arrangement of atoms in an alloy.

6. Do alloys have a regular or irregular structure?

7. Are metals good conductors or insulators (of electricity)?

8. How many elements are in an alloy?

a) Only 2.

b) At least 2, sometimes more.

c) At least 5, all mixed together.

9. What are alloys called that can return to their original shape?

10. How can we return them to their original shape?

Metallic bonding

Polymers and Nanoscience

The melting point of a thermosoftening polymer is determined by the strength of the INTERMOLECULAR FORCES High density polymer – chains close together Low density polymer chains far apart • • • Nanoscience is the science of very small particles and looks at the properties of nanoparticles.

These are particles with in the range of 0·1nm to 100nm. The name 'nano' means 10 -9 .

A nanoparticle is about 100 atoms Some do not melt when heated, these are called thermosetting polymers.

These cross-links make the material tougher and less flexible.

Some will soften easily, and can be moulded into shape before they are cooled down, these are called thermosoftening polymers.

• •

Advantages

Large surface area makes them effective catalysts.

Nanotubes can be used in small scale circuits as nanowires.

• •

Disadvantages

So small they can enter the skin and therefore the bloodstream.

Easily become airborne, breathing in can potentially damage the lungs.

Nanoparticles are present in sun screens May be used to develop faster computers, lighter construction materials and new coatings

10 Questions

1. Are hydrocarbons tightly packed together in HD or LD polystyrene?

2. Some plastics melt when heated, what do we call them?

3. Some plastics do not melt when heated, what do we call them?

4. Why do they not melt?

5. What is the melting point of a thermosoftening plastic determined by?

6. When we grind solids up into small particles, what happens to the surface area of the solid?

7. What is nanoscience?

8. Approximately how many atoms are in a nanoparticle?

9. State one advantage and one disadvantage of nanoparticles?

10. State one use for nanoparticles.

Polymers and Nanoscience

• • •

Analytical techniques

Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods.

GC, GC-MS

Advantages

Highly accurate and sensitive.

They are quicker.

Enable very small samples to be analysed • • • Chemical analysis can be used to identify additives in foods. Artificial colours can be detected/identified by paper chromatography

Disadvantages

Equipment is very expensive.

Takes specialist training to use.

results can ONLY be analysed by comparison with known data

A B C D

Components in a mixture can be identified by the distance they move relative to the solvent. This is the R f value: Distance moved by component Distance moved by solvent Different substances, carried by a gas, travel through a column packed with a solid material at different speeds, so that they become separated the number of peaks on the output of a gas chromatograph shows the number of compounds present. The position of the peaks on the output indicates the retention time. The output from the gas chromatography column can be linked to a mass spectrometer, which can be used to identify the substances leaving the end of the column by relative molecular mass Retention time

1.

10 Questions

How can you separate… a) b) c) A solid from a liquid A liquid from a gas A liquid from a liquid 2. What is an E-number?

3. State one advantage and one disadvantage of chromatography.

4. What do we call the filter paper after the chromatography experiment has ended?

5. What colours are present in blank inks?

6. What does the R called?

f value represent?

7. What do the initials GC-MS stand for?

8. Give an example of a typical carrier gas in a GC-MS.

9. What is the period of time a gas remains in the column of a GC-MS 10. Give a use for chromatography.

Analytical techniques

Calculations and moles

The relative atomic mass of an element (Ar) compares the mass of atoms of the element, has the same value as the mass number.

Percentage of element in a compound

There are 4 steps to calculate the percentage mass of an element in a compound… The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.

Relative formula mass

1. Write the formula of the compound.

2. Write the numbers of each atom in the formula.

3. Insert the relative atomic mass for each type of atom.

4. Calculate the total mass for each element.

5. Add up the total mass for the compound.

1. C 2 H 5 3. (6x1) OH 2. (6xH) + (2xC) + (1xO) + (2x12) + (1x16) 4. 6 + 24 + 16 5. M r = 46 The relative formula mass of a substance, in grams, is known as one mole of that substance.

Step 1: Step 2: Write down the formula of the compound.

Using the A r values on the data sheet calculate the M r of the compound.

Step 3: Write down the fraction of the element you are investigating as a fraction of the M r .

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴 𝑀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 Step 4: Find percentage by multiplying fraction by 100.

Yield

The amount of a product obtained is known as the yield. When compared with the maximum theoretical amount as a percentage, it is called the percentage yield.

10 Questions

1. What is a mole (don’t say a small burrowing mammal)?

2. How do we calculate the Mr of a compound?

3. What is the Ar of Cl?

4. What is the Mr of Na 2 O?

5. What is the percentage of Na in Na 2 O?

6. What is the Mr of (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ?

7. What is the percentage of N in (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ?

8. What is the percentage of O in (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 ?

9. What is the percentage of H in (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 10. What is the yield of a substance?

Calculations and moles

Reaction kinetics

• • For a reaction to occur: Step 1: Energy must be SUPPLIED to break bonds.

Step 2: Energy is RELEASED when new bonds are made.

In some chemical reactions, the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants. Such reactions are called reversible reactions and are represented: A + B C + D A reaction is EXOTHERMIC if more energy is RELEASED then SUPPLIED (hotter). If more energy is SUPPLIED then is RELEASED then the reaction is ENDOTHERMIC (older).

ammonium chloride NH 4 Cl (s) ammonia + hydrogen chloride NH 3 (g) + HCl (g) • • • Even though no atoms are gained or lost in a chemical reaction, it is not always possible to obtain the calculated amount of a product because: the reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible.

some of the product may be lost when it is separated from the reaction mixture some of the reactants may react in ways different from the expected reaction.

The change from blue hydrated copper sulphate to white anhydrous copper sulphate is one of the most commonly known reversible reactions.

hydrated copper sulphate anhydrous copper sulphate + steam CuSO 4 .5H

2 O (s) CuSO 4 (s) + 5H 2 O (l) If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction. The same amount of energy is transferred in each case.

10 Questions

1.

For a reaction to occur why is energy supplied?

2. Why is energy released during a reaction?

3. If more energy is supplied than released is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?

4. If a reaction is endothermic will the surroundings get warmer or colder?

5. A reaction requires a lot of heat to take place, it is endothermic or exothermic?

6. Is breaking bonds an endothermic or exothermic process?

7. Give 2 reasons why a yield is not always 100%?

8. What is the symbol for a reversible reaction?

9. Give an example of a reversible reaction.

10. If a reversible reaction is exothermic in 1 direction what must it be in the other?

Reaction kinetics

Amount of product formed

Fast rate of reaction here

Reaction rates

Slower rate of reaction here due to reactants being used up Reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy required for particles to react on collision is called the activation energy.

Slower reaction Time • • • • Reaction can be followed by: Loss in mass if gas produced.

Measuring volume of a gas produced every min.

Appearance/disappearance of colour.

Change in pH etc.

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Factors affecting reaction rate

Concentration: Increasing concentration increases number of collisions and increases rate Temperature: Particles have more energy and move faster and collide more often. More particles have energy greater than the activation energy so more successful collisions Catalyst: Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts. Catalysts are important in increasing the rates of chemical reactions used in industrial processes to reduce costs.

Pressure: Increasing pressure increases the number of collisions as the particles are closer.

Surface area: Increases the number of collisions as there is more surface exposed

10 Questions

1. What equipment can be used to measure the mass of a product?

2. In terms of reactants how do we know when a reaction is completed?

3. State 2 ways in which a reaction can be followed.

4. Define activation energy.

5. How do catalysts effect the activation energy?

6. How does this change the rate of a reaction?

Describe how the following factors effect the rate of a reaction in terms of amount (frequency) of collisions and energy of collisions?

7. Increasing the temperature.

8. Decreasing the concentration.

9. Increasing the pressure of gaseous reactants.

10. Grinding up solid calcium carbonate into a powder.

Reaction rates

Acid

hydrochloric sulphuric nitric

Acids and Bases

Formula

HCl H 2 SO 4 HNO 3

Salts

chlorides sulphates nitrates Reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy required for particles to react on collision is called the activation energy.

acid + metal  salt + hydrogen 1

Red

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Increasingly acidic Green Purple Increasingly basic

acid acid + base  salt + water + CO 2 + carbonate  salt + H 2 O • • • • Acids give H + in water Bases accept H + Alkalis are soluble bases and give OH water Bases include, metal oxides, metal hydroxides, metal carbonates in

Common Acids

hydrochloric acid - HCl sulphuric acid - H

2 SO 4

nitric acid - HNO

3 Common Bases

sodium hydroxide - NaOH potassium hydroxide - KOH ammonia – NH

3

Neutralisation An acid can be neutralised by a base H + (aq) + OH (aq)  H 2 O (l)

Base

Calcium hydroxide Magnesium oxide Calcium carbonate

Acid

Hydrochloric acid Nitric acid Sulphuric acid

Salt

Calcium chloride Magnesium nitrate Calcium sulphate

10 Questions

1. What scale is used to measure how acidic or alkaline a substance is?

2. What in the name and formula of the acid that can be used to make magnesium chloride from magnesium ribbon?

3. What is the definition of an acid?

4. What is the difference between an alkali and a base?

5. What gas is formed when an acid reacts with a metal?

6. How can we test for this gas?

7. What is the name of the salt formed when Na 2 O reacts with HNO 3 ?

8. What is the name of the salt formed when SnO 2 reacts with H 2 SO 4 ?

9. What is the formula of the salt formed when Al reacts with HCl?

10. What is the formula of the salt formed when Mg reacts with HNO 3 ?

Acids and Bases

• • • •

Soluble salts

Metal can be reacted with an acid until the metal is used up.

Excess metal can be filtered off.

Water can be evaporated from the solution and the salt left to crystallise Disadvantage: not all metals are suitable; some are too reactive and others are not reactive enough.

acid + metal  salt +

Salts

hydrogen • • • • Place a known volume of alkali in a beaker Add an indicator Add acid dropwise until the solution is neutral. Record the amount of acid required.

Mix the same volume of alkali and acid, evaporate off some of the water and leave to crystallise •

Insoluble salts

Insoluble salts can be made by mixing appropriate solutions of ions so that a precipitate is formed.

acid + carbonate salt + H 2 O CO 2 acid + base   salt + + water • The precipitate can be separated using filter paper, washed with distilled water and left to dry.

acid + alkali  salt + water • All nitrates are soluble, all sodium salts are soluble.

Ammonia dissolves in water to produce an alkaline solution. It is used to produce ammonium salts. Ammonium salts are important as fertilisers. Precipitation can be used to remove unwanted ions from solutions, for example in treating water for drinking or in treating effluent.

10 Questions

Nickel sulphate (a soluble salt) can be made by adding an excess of insoluble nickel oxide to sulphuric acid until no further reaction occurs.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Give an observation that would show you that the reaction is complete?

What equipment could be used to removed the excess nickel oxide?

What is the name of this separation method?

How you could produce crystals of nickel sulphate from nickel sulphate solution?

What other reactant could be added to H 2 SO What is the formula of nickel (II) sulphate?

4 to make nickel sulphate?

Silver chloride is an insoluble salt which is formed as a precipitate when silver nitrate and sodium chloride solutions are mixed together.

7.

Write a word equation for this reaction.

8.

What is the formula of silver (I) chloride?

9.

After mixing the reactants how could the insoluble salt be separated?

10. Lead nitrate and sodium sulphate are reacted together in solution. Name the two salts made in this reaction?

Salts

Electrolysis – Molten

When ionic compounds are melted or dissolved in water the ions can move.

Positive ions (CATIONS) move to the negative electrode (CATHODE).

Br 2

+ This means that molten ionic compounds and solutions of ionic compounds conduct electricity.

Anode

Br Br -

Cathode

Pb 2+

Negative ions (ANIONS) move to the positive electrode (ANODE).

The solution or melt that is electrolysed is called the ELECTROLYTE.

Electrolysis of molten compounds

All ionic compounds contain positive and negative ions. We can predict the ions present from the formula and the charges on the ions using the formula and the data sheet.

• •

During electrolysis:

The CATIONS move to the negative electrode where they GAIN electrons The ANIONS move to the positive electrode where they LOSE electrons OF ELECTRONS

e.g. lead bromide

PbBr 2  Pb 2+ + 2Br -

e.g. Copper chloride

CuCl 2  Cu 2+ + 2Cl -

I O

s xidation

L

oss

I R

s eduction

G

ain

10 Questions

1. Why can’t ionic solids conduct electricity?

2. Why can ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten?

3. What is the name given to the positive electrode?

4. (electricity using compound splitting a up) – rearrange sentence!

5. What is a compound split up into using electrolysis?

6. What is the solution or melt that is electrolysed called?

7. What does the acronym O I L R I G stand for?

8. Br ions reach the positive electrode and loose electrons to form bromine gas, is this process oxidation or reduction?

9. What ions are present in calcium iodide and which electrode would each ion go to?

10. What is the formula of the calcium iodide?

Electrolysis – Molten

Electrolysis - Solutions

At the negative electrode, positively charged ions gain electrons (reduction) and at the positive electrode, negatively charged ions lose electrons (oxidation).

If there is a mixture of ions, the products formed depend on the reactivity of the elements involved.

Electroplating Electrolysis is used to electroplate objects. This may be for a variety of reasons and includes copper plating and silver plating.

Passing a current through a solution containing Cu2+ ions or Ag+ ions will result in the silver or copper being deposited on the cathode.

Brine

Compounds: sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H 2 O) Ions: Na + + Cl (Anode) --- OH + H + (Cathode) When the chloride ions and hydrogen ions have been discharged……NaOH is left behind • • • • • Extraction of aluminium Bauxite – aluminium ore containing aluminium oxide Aluminium oxide has a very high melting point The electrolysis takes place when the aluminium oxide is molten. It is dissolved in molten cryolite to reduce the temperature at which it melts.

This reduces energy costs The cathode and anode are made of graphite • • • Products in the electrolysis of brine:

Chlorine (Cl 2

) - used in bleach and plastics.

Hydrogen (H 2

) - used in the hydrogenation of vegetable oil to make butter.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) - used in soap.

Oxygen is released at the anode where it reacts with the graphite to form carbon dioxide. Therefore the anode needs to be replaced often

Electrolysis - Solutions

1. What is the chemical formula of salt in the sea?

2. What ions are present in brine?

3. What are the 3 products made when brine undergoes electrolysis? Give a use of each one. 4. What ions move towards the anode?

5. What ions move towards the cathode?

6. What gas discharged at the anode?

7. What gas discharged at the cathode?

8. What ions are left in solution?

9. What is the name of the compound left in the solution 10. When bauxite undergoes electrolysis what metal is formed and why does the carbon anode need to be frequently replaced?

Electrolysis – Molten

Mark Scheme

Atomic Structure

1. 35 2. 17 3. 17 protons, 18 neutrons, 17 electrons 4. 2,8,7 5. 0 6. 0 7. shells (or) orbitals 8. 35.5

9. Isotopes - Atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons 35 Cl – 18 neutrons 37 Cl – 20 neutrons

Ionic bonding

1. Transfer 2. (a) Metals and Non-metals 3. -1 4. +3 5. Electrostatic 6. Molten (l) or in solution (aq) 7.

8.

10. MgCl 2 = (1xMg) = (1x24) = 24 = 95 + (2xCl) + (2x35.5) + 71 9. [2,8] 10. CaF 2

Covalent bonding - molecules

1. Share 2. (b) Non metals and Non-metals 3. 1 4. 5 5. They do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not have an overall electric charge. (or) No free electrons or ions.

6. Strong 7.

9.

8.

Mark Scheme

10. 4

Covalent bonding - Giant

1. 4 2. 3 3. In graphite, each carbon atom bonds to three others, forming layers. The layers are free to slide over each other because there are no covalent bonds between the layers and so graphite is soft and slippery.

4. In graphite, one electron from each carbon atom is delocalised. These delocalised electrons allow graphite to conduct heat and electricity.

5. No delocalised electrons.

6. Silicon dioxide 7. Macromolecules 8. High 9. Giant covalent structures are linked by strong covalent bonds and so they have very high melting points.

10. They are useful in reinforcing structures where lightness and strength are needed for example, in tennis racket frames.

Metallic bonding

1. Metallic 2.

3. Regular 4. To make them harder 5.

Mark Scheme

6. Irregular 7. Conductors 8. (b) At least 2, sometimes more 9. Shape memory alloys 10. Heat them up

Polymers and Nanoscience

1. High Density (HD) 2. Thermosoftening 3. Thermosetting 4. Cross-links in the structure 5. The melting point of a thermosoftening • polymer is determined by the strength of the INTERMOLECULAR FORCES 6. Gets bigger 7. Nanoscience is the science of very small particles and looks at the properties of nanoparticles.

8. A nanoparticle is about 100 atoms

9. Advantages:

Large surface area makes them effective catalysts.

• Nanotubes can be used in small scale circuits as nanowires.

Disadvantages:

• • So small they can enter the skin and therefore the bloodstream.

Easily become airborne, breathing in can potentially damage the lungs.

10. Sun screens (or) Bandages - others

Mark Scheme

Analytical techniques

1. (a) Filtering • (b) take the lid off (c) chromatography 2. Codes for chemicals which can be used as food additives for use within the EU.

3. Advantages:

Highly accurate and sensitive.

• • They are quicker.

Enable very small samples to be analysed

Disadvantages:

• • • Equipment is very expensive.

Takes specialist training to use.

results can ONLY be analysed by comparison with known data.

4. Chromatogram 5. All colours 6. Distance compound travels up chromatogram 7. Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry 8. He (or) N 2 (or) H 2 9. Retention time 10. Separating a mixture of liquids (or) Money and cheques can be proven as fakes using this scientific technique - others

Calculations and moles

1. The relative formula mass of a substance, in grams, is known as one mole of that substance.

2. Mr of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.

3. 35.5

4. Na 2 O = (2xNa) + (1xO) = (2x23) = 46 + (1x16) + 16 = 62 5. % of Na = ( 46 / 62 ) x 100 = 74.2% 6. Mr of (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 = 132 7. % of N = ( 28 / 132 ) x 100 = 21.2% 8. % of O = ( 64 / 132 ) x 100 = 48.5% 9. % of H = ( 8 / 132 ) x 100 = 6.1% 10. The amount of a product obtained is known as the yield.

• • •

Reaction kinetics

1. To break bonds 2. Bonds are made 3. Endothermic 4. Colder 5. Endothermic 6. Endothermic 7. Yield is never 100% because: The reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible.

Some of the product may be lost when it is separated from the reaction mixture Some of the reactants may react in ways different from the expected reaction.

8.

9.

NH 4 Cl (s) 10. Endothermic

Mark Scheme

NH 3 (g) + HCl (g)

Reaction rates

1. Balance (or) Scales 2. There are no reactants remaining 3. Amount of product formed (and) Amount of reactant used.

4. Reactions occur when particles collide with sufficient energy. The minimum amount of energy required for particles to react on collision is called the activation energy.

5. Catalysts lower the activation energy.

6. Speeds it up 7. Rate increases as frequency and energy of collisions increases.

8. Rate decreases as only the frequency of collisions decreases.

9. Rate increases as only the frequency of collisions increases.

10. Rate increases as the surface area is increased, therefore increasing the frequency of collisions increases.

Mark Scheme

Acids and Bases

1. pH scale 2. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) 3. Acids give H + in water 4. Alkalis are soluble bases and give OH in water.

5. Hydrogen 6. Squeaky pop (heard when an ignition source is brought near).

7. Sodium nitrate 8. Tin Sulphate 9. AlCl 3 10. Mg(NO 3 ) 2

Salts

1. Temperature would stop rising – other 2. Filter paper + filter funnel + conical flask 3. Filtering 4. Leave to evaporate 5. Nickel metal, Ni (s) 6. NiSO 4 7.

silver nitrate + sodium chloride



silver chloride + sodium nitrate

8. AgCl 9. Filtering 10. lead sulphate (and) sodium nitrate

Mark Scheme

Electrolysis – Molten

1. Ions cannot move 2. When ionic compounds are melted or dissolved in water the ions can move.

3. Anode (Remember PANIC: Positive Anode Negative Is Cathode).

4. Splitting up a compound using electricity.

5. Elements 6. Electrolyte 7. OILRIG – Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).

8. Oxidation 9. Ca 2+ would go to the cathode, I would go to the anode.

10. CaI 2

Electrolysis - Solutions

1. NaCl 2. Na + , H + , OH , Cl 3. Hydrogen, chlorine, sodium hydroxide.

4. Negative ions (OH , Cl ) 5. Positive Ions (H + , Na + ) 6. Chlorine 7. Hydrogen 8. Na + and OH 9. Sodium hydroxide 10. Aluminium. Oxygen is released at the anode where it reacts with the graphite to form carbon dioxide. Therefore the anode needs to be replaced often.