Transcript Strengthening Aging and Gerontology Education for Social

Important Policy Periods
for Native Americans
Cultural competence in working with elders
University of Oklahoma
School of Social Work
Master’s Advanced Curriculum Project
Sponsored by:
Objectives
Knowledge
 Service eligibility for Native Elders
 Examples of historical experiences that may
lead to distrust of helping professionals
 Results of assimilation efforts by federal
government
 Examples of romanticizing tribal Elder’s culture
 Build appreciation for the tenacity with which
Native people have retained their culture and
transformed it through their experiences in
urban contexts
Foundational Information
Tribal Nations
 There are state
 561 Tribal Entities
recognized tribes that
that are recognized by
do not have federal
the U.S. Federal
recognition
Government
Implications
 Tribal Nations provide health,
mental health, and social
services for elders
 Tribes with federal recognition
tend to have more services
 Eligibility determined by the
elder’s tribal citizenship
 Formal application process for
each tribe
 There are tribes that
do not have state
federal recognition,
they may be in the
process of seeking
recognition from the
state or federal
government
Social Worker Response
 After an elder self identifies as
American Indian or Alaska
Native, ask if they are enrolled
and with what tribe
 Tribal elders are still eligible
for local, state, federal based
programs
 Determine where elder prefers
to seek services-from tribe or
not
Historical Background
History of oppression against Tribal People
 Agencies were created to “help” Native Americans often proved
detrimental
- Boarding schools sought to assimilate children
- Over representation of tribal children in out of home child welfare placements
 Research has been done by outsiders that did not consult the tribe
- Did not consider tribal needs in determining research agenda
- Did not publish findings with tribal consent
- Often misrepresented tribal culture
Implications
 Elders may have distrust of social
service professionals
 Extra time may be needed to
establish trust
Social Worker Response
 Recognize that distrust is not just an
Indigenous response, but common
to other populations we serve
 Do not personalize
 Do not feel guilty about historical
oppression
 Do feel accountable for recognizing
contemporary discrimination and
respond appropriately
Historical Oppression
U.S. Government
Policies & Practices
◦ Early periods sought to end tribal
cultures
◦ Goal was to assimilate Indigenous people
into American society; examples:
 Boarding Schools
 Relocation Programs
Implications
◦ Policies were not successful tribal
cultures changed, but did not end
◦ Elders will have different levels of
ethnic identity (identification with
tribal culture) partially based on
these experiences
◦ Ethnic identity will have varied over
the elder’s life
◦ Different members of the elder’s
family will have different levels of
ethnic identity
 Could be source of conflict
◦ Ethnic identity can impact one’s
perception of wellness, where one
wants to seek help
Social Worker Response
◦ Listen to the elder in terms of
their level of affiliation with their
tribe and connection to tribal
culture
◦ Macro level programs exist to
strengthen traditional
knowledge, support learning of
tribal languages. May refer client
if this is their wish to become
more connected.
Dates
Policy
Major Laws
Relationship
Tribal Status
1770s-1820s
International
Sovereign to
International
Sovereign
1783 Northwest Ordinance
1790 Trade & Intercourse Acts
Protectorate
International
Sovereigns
1830s-1850s
Removal
1830 Indian Removal Act
GovernmentGovernment and
Trust Relationship
Domestic Dependent
Nations
1850s-1890s
Reservation
Reservation Treaties
Guardianship
Wards in need of
protection
1870s-1930s
Assimilation
1871 End of Treaty Making
1885 Major Crimes Act
1887 Dawes Allotment Act
Guardianship
Wards in need of
protection
1930s-1950s
Tribal SelfGovernment
1934 Indian Reorganization Act
Renewal of
governmentgovernment &
trust relationship
Termination of status
1950s-1960s
Termination
1953 Resolution 108
1953 Public Law 280 Urban
Relocation
Termination of
Relationship
Domestic Dependent
Nation/QuasiSovereigns
1960sPresent
SelfDetermination
1968 Indian Civil Rights Act
1975 Indian Self Determination Act
1978 Indian Child Welfare Act
1978 Indian Religious Freedom Act
Renewal of
governmentgovernment &
trust relationship
Domestic Dependent
Nation/QuasiSovereigns
Cohort Analysis:
Older Adults 80+
Assimilation Policy Period - 1870s to 1930s
 Impact on Native American elders today
 Forced assimilation practices separated children from their
families and communities
 Children were confined to a strict militaristic style of
teaching, with strong disciplinary actions for any mention of
their native culture
Assimilation Outcomes:
 Elders were not physically accessible to children to serve as
teachers of culture
 Loss of children’s lives, cultural continuance, and connection
 Resilience amongst some children lead to greater diversity
among Native American elders today
 Significant loss of tribal land to non-native people
 Native Americans granted citizenship in 1924
Cohort Analysis:
Old Age to Young Old
Tribal Self Government – 1930s to 1950s
 1934 Indian Reorganization Act
 Also known as the Indian New Deal or Wheeler-Howard Act
 Tribes sovereignty restored and the extended rights to tribes to create
Constitutions, form organizations, and businesses if they desired to do
so
 Development of a credit system for tribes
 The sale of tribal land slowed down, but there was continued loss of
land to non-native land buyers
Outcomes of Tribal Self-Government:
 Established self-government and financial equity for the tribes
 Continued loss of connection between child and elder, family and
community due to adoption, continued boarding schools, and racism
 The act provided initial definitions of “Indian” and “tribe”
 Funds set up for a revolving credit system for tribal land purchases,
education, and general aid to the tribes
 Remains the basis of federal legislation for the Indian affairs
Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (1936)
 Also known as the Thomas-Rogers Act, was a revision to the
federal 1934 Wheeler-Howard or Indian Reorganization Act
 Proposed by Sen. Elmer Thomas, along with other
congressmen, who did not believe that forcing Native
Americans off of their allotments to the Reservations would
be beneficial to the state or the individual
 Placed Native American residing in Oklahoma under Federal
guardianship, lessened restrictions on land ownership for
native people, and restricted the sale of tribal lands to nonnative persons.
Cohort Analysis:
Young Old to Middle Age
Termination – 1950s to 1960s
 Tribes no longer recognized as sovereign nations
 Tribes and individuals were no longer exempt from federal and state
taxes
 Tribal land was no longer held in trust by the government and large
tracts of land were sold to non-native people
 Federal funds taken from health care and social services provided to
Native Americans living on the reservations
 States were allowed to engage jurisdiction on reservations
Outcomes of Termination:
 Approximately 44,000 Native Americans served in the military
during WWII; Navajo “code talkers” known for their involvement
 Relocation program sponsored by the BIA
 Over 100 tribes were terminated from Federal Tribal roles
Realities of the Termination Policy Period
1953 Public Law 280 – Urban Relocation Program
Our poverty prompted the move. In 1955, my
father first started talking to the Bureau of Indian
Affairs (BIA) officials about various forms of
assistance for Cherokees. Relocation was a
possibility. I recall hearing at the time that the
relocation program was being offered as a
wonderful opportunity for Indian families to get
great jobs, obtain good educations for their kids,
and once and for all, leave poverty behind. In
truth, the program gave the government the
perfect chance to take Indian people away from
their culture and their land.
Urban Relocation Propaganda: Denver
 “Relocatees were supposed to
receive temporary housing,
counseling and guidance in
finding a job, permanent
housing, community and social
resources. The new migrants
also were given money to tide
them over on a sliding scale
based on the number of children
in the family. A man, his wife
and four children got $80 a
week for four weeks” (The urban
relocation program, 2006).
Image from:
http://www.marycrowdog.com/images/BIAIndian-relocation-ad_smaller.jpg
Relocation Dreams vs. Reality
“Some of those who moved to Chicago before the Relocation program,
helped establish the Chicago Indian Center, an independent organization,
free of BIA oversight. The Center offered a place for diverse tribes to
come together and "be Indian,"•
contrary to the Relocation goal of
keeping urban Indians dispersed to speed assimilation. The realities of
city life for Indians fell far short of the glossy BIA pamphlets. Many
became victims of crime or succumbed to alcoholism and other
misfortunes and fell through the cracks. In the end, they simply joined
the sea of other low-income brown folks struggling to survive in an
unfamiliar big city” (Pember, 2008).
Cohort Analysis:
Middle Age and younger
Self-Determination – 1960s to Present
 Indian activism rose with the 1968 Indian Civil Rights Act preceding
the 1975 Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act,
putting to rest the 30 year effort to end treaties and federal
government obligations to the tribes
 1978 Indian Religious Freedoms Act and the Indian Child Welfare Act
 Tribal Nations resumed power over tribal government, education,
and negotiations with the Bureau of Indian Affairs
Self Determination Outcomes
 Some of the elders that had maintained their traditional language &
traditions were again supported by tribal governments, resurgence of
language and cultural revival programs
 Surge among the younger generations to return to traditional tribal
practices, pow wows, ceremony, and Indian education
 Increase in federal funds to Indian Health Services to provide for
health care and social services to both rural and urban American
Indians and Alaska Natives
 Continued fight for the recognition and preservation of native sacred
sites across the United States
American Indian Movement
The Occupation of Alcatraz – November 20th,1969
“Indian people can feel ashamed of themselves without reason.
It all stems from racism. If you go to high school off
reservation you have no friends, no girlfriends, you try to fit in,
you give everything up. You sit in the back, keep quiet, try to
go along, try to fit in, but something was missing. You know
something is wrong. There’s this empty void inside you. You
coast along. Work 8-5 jobs. Life is not really worthwhile. But
something is growing inside you all those years. Suddenly
something like Alcatraz happens. All of those Indians coming
together. Even if they didn’t have any real goal, just a
gathering, it’s still very powerful. You realize you’re not alone.
You share the future, the same goals. Alcatraz – that gave me
the strength. You realize that the white man is not going to do
it. I have to do something myself. So it’s been that way ever
since. The importance is that Alcatraz had a power to being
fundamental change. It happened on Alcatraz.”
Excerpt from George Horse-Capture found in Nagel, 1997, p.134
Self-Determination in Action
Indian Religious Freedoms Act
 Initial provisions acknowledged past infringements on
American Indian and Alaska Native tribes to “believe, express,
and practice” the traditional ways of their culture
 1994 Amendments expanded those freedoms to include
access to sacred sites, use of sacramental objects, and the
freedom to worship through traditional rites and ceremonies
 Examples: Use of peyote by the Native American Church and
remittance to partake in the Ghost Dance
(Photo Source:
Horgan, 2003)
Pow wow Photo Source:
http://www.nativeamericancelebrati
on.com/images/powwow_dancer.jpg
Self-Determination in Action
Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
 Between 1969 and 1974 - just five years time – between 25
and 35% of Native American children had been removed from
their homes and placed in non-native foster or adoptive
homes
 The ICWA reinforced cultural preservation of native families
and provided protection to Native American children through
provisions that keep them in the family or tribal community
 Today, in addition to cultural preservation, it provides
protection and advocacy for Native American children, in both
urban and rural areas
(NICWA, 2009; Wilkins, 2004)
Social Considerations
Romanticizing
American Indians and Alaska Natives elders have to
constantly deal with people claiming to be Native,
typically Cherokee
Implications
◦ American Indian identity and
connection is stronger than self
identification, it is evident in the
way the elder lives, many Native
elders have paid and continue to
pay a heavy price for continuing
their cultural way of life.
Social Worker Response
◦ Be aware of your own cultural
background and values
◦ Don’t say that you are Cherokee
in attempt to connect with the
elder
◦ Don’t romanticize tribal culture
and ask questions to satisfy
your own curiosity
References
Horgan, J. (2003). Peyote on the brain. Discover: Science, technology, and the future.
Retrieved May 8, 2009 from http://discovermagazine.com/2003/feb/featpeyote
Nagel, J. (1997). American Indian ethnic renewal: Red power and the resurgence of
identity and culture. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0195120639.
Pember, M.A. (2008). Indian Relocation: Sending Roots under Pavement. Daily Yonder:
Keep it rural. Retrieved April 26, 2009 fromhttp://www.dailyyonder.com/indianrelocation-sending-roots-under-pavement
Radar, B. F. (n.d.). Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act (1936). Encyclopedia of Oklahoma
History and Culture. Retrieve April 28, 3009, from
http://digital.library.okstate.edu/encyclopedia/entries/O/OK059.html
The Urban Relocation Program. (2006, September). Indian Country Diaries: Assimilation,
relocation, genocide. Retrieve April 26, 2009 from
http://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/history/relocate.html
Wilkins, A. (2004, April). The Indian Child Welfare Act and the States. National
Conference of State Legislators. Retrieve d May 8, 2009 from
http://www.ncsl.org/programs/statetribe/icwa.htm