Transcript Document

Sea Power & Maritime Affairs
PRE-AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Antiquity to 1763
Admin
 Quiz? Assignment?
Today’s Objectives
Lesson 1
Answer 3 Questions
1. Why do navies exist?
2. Where did they begin?
3. How did they set the pretext for the
US navy?
Why do navies exist?
1. Protect commercial
interests
– Anti-piracy
2. Deny competing
commercial interests
– Rival industries and
states
3. Assist armies during
conquest
– Transport
– Supply
– Communications
How did navies begin?
Enter
Here
Growth of Societies
Expansion of
economic interests
Military conquest
Protection of sea
commerce
Where did navies begin?
Med
Focus of
this course
Mediterranean States “Age of Galley Warfare”
Crete
Phoenicians
Greeks
Rome
Byzantine Empire
Turkish Empire
2,500-1,200 BC
2,000 – 300 BC
700 – 200 BC
200 BC – 500 AD
500 – 1450 AD
1450 – 1650 AD
Asia
Not
covered in
this course
Sea Power Cycle
Enter Here
Force
Composition
Technology
Balance of
Naval Power
Tactics
Strategy
“Age of Galley Warfare”
What was it?
1. Longest era of naval warfare
2. Rowed ship v. Rowed ship
1. Ship used as a battering ram
2. Boarding & fighting
3. Projectiles (missiles)
When was it?
– Antiquity – 1650 AD
• Battle of Lepanto
• “Age of Sail Warfare” replaced it
Round Ship
Technology
Galley
What was it?
• Commercial vessel
in antiquity
What was it?
• “Long Ship”
• Fighting vessel in antiquity
Good
•
•
•
•
•
Good
•
•
•
•
•
•
for fighting? Why?
(D) Slow
(D) Few sailors
(D) No protection
(A) Stable on rough seas
(A) Well provisioned
(large hull)
for fighting? Why?
(A) Fast
(A) Sails & Rowers
(A) Many rowers & marines
(A) Outfit for battle (ram)
(D) Unstable on rough seas
(D) Poorly provisioned
Trireme
Changed naval strategy and tactics
– 150 rowers
- 40 marines
– Faster (7-8 kts)
- More maneuverable
– Ramming & boarding tactics
(grapnels then corvus)
Trireme
Tactics
 Line Abreast & Boarding
– Use grapnels to tie boats together in a
giant “island”
– Board and fight hand-to-hand
 Ramming
 Projectiles
– Arrows
– Greek fire
– Cannon
Line Abreast
Line Abreast
Line Abreast
Naval infantry used to board
and capture enemy galleys.
Ramming
Ramming
Ramming
Rams used to sink or
immobilize enemy galleys.
Greek Fire
 Ancient Version of a flamethrower
–
–
–
–
Ignited evaporated oil
Deadly with wooden ships
First Mention: 500 B.C.
More common use by 800 A.D. (Byzantium)
Videos
Age of Galley Battle
Ben Hur
Countries and History
Starting with Crete…
Crete
Major Commercial Hub
2,500-1,200 BC
Phoenicians
First Major Naval Empire
2,000-300 BC
Greeks
700-200 BC
First to employ well orchestrated maneuvering and ramming
tactics. Replaced the old boarding tactics.
Battle of Salamis
480 BC
3rd Persian attempt to conquer Greece
Pitted Greek Tactics (ramming) vs. Persian Tactics (grapnels/boarding)
Greeks: 500 ships
Persians: 1,400 Persians ships / 175,000 sailors & marines / 180,000 soldiers
Greek technology & tactics defeated Persians. Proved several concepts:
1. Ships are vital for supply
2. Ships are vital for communications
3. Small navies with fast ships and effective tactics can defeat larger navies.
****Gave rise to Greek dominance of the eastern Mediterranean.
Romans
200 BC – 500 AD
Roman Navy v. Carthage Navy
1. Roman advantage is hand-to-hand skill
2. Revert to grapnel, corvus, and boarding tactics
Prove: Old tactics can be effective if appropriately used
Battle of Actium (31 AD)
1. Octavius v. Mark Anthony (and Cleopatria)---comparable size fleets
2. Octavias uses fire missiles to burn Anthony’s fleet
3. Decisive victory from creativity
Byzantine Empire
500–1450 AD
West slips into the “Dark Ages,” Byzantine takes over the Med. Dominant
power for nearly 1000 years. Challenged by Islam and then Ottoman Empire.
Islam
400-700 AD
1. Rise of Islam
2. Fall of Islam in 732 AD following defeats in Constantinople and Gaul
Vikings
800 – 1050 AD
1. High seas required Broader Ships
2. Broader Ships = Less Draft + Easier Landings for Invasion
Crusades
1095 – 1300 AD
First Naval Cannon
 Gunpowder & naval cannon
– Imported from China and far east
 Introduced in Byzantium in 1260
 Limitations:
– Short distance, inaccurate, long reload
time, little skill
 Purpose: clearing decks prior to
boarding
Ottoman Empire
1450 – 1650 AD
Battle of Lepanto
1571 AD
Famous for 2 reasons
1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)
2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare
Battle
1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League
2. Coast of western Greece
3. Mostly galley ships (oars)
3. Line abreast tactics
Battle of Lepanto
1571 AD
Famous for 2 reasons
1. First great galley battle since Actium (31 AD)
2. Last battle in the age of galley warfare
Battle
1. Ottomans vs. anti-Muslim Holy League
2. Coast of western Greece
3. Mostly galley ships (oars)
3. Line abreast tactics
Battle of Lepanto
1571 AD
Outcome
1. Ottomans defeated (fall of empire)
2. Christian countries regained naval
supremacy in the Med.
3. Age of oar-propelled warships ends
4. Rise of the Age of Sail and European
conquest.
“Age of Sail Warfare”
AD 1571 - 1861
Key Themes
1. Technology, strategy, tactics
2. Rise of Europe
– Renaissance
– Colonial expansion
3. Emergence of powerful empires
– Portugal, Spain, France, Netherlands, GB
– Strong navy was key factor
4. Evolution of British naval dominance
Today’s Objectives
Lesson 1
Answer 3 Questions
1. Why did sail-warfare replace galley-warfare?
2. How did technology change?
3. How did naval tactics change?
Sea Power Cycle
Enter Here
Force
Composition
Technology
Balance of
Naval Power
Tactics
Strategy
Why Age of Sail?
Enter
Here
Growth of Societies
Expansion of
economic interests
Military conquest
Protection of sea
commerce
Trade in Antiquity
Mostly Mediterranean
Trade in 100 AD
Silk road to the East
Trade in 1000 AD
Robust Trade Network
Trade in 1700 AD
“Oceanic Age” or “Age of Exploration”
Trade on all continents
Why not earlier?
1. Misunderstanding of geography
2. Ship design limitations
3. Medieval Kings could not afford ocean
exploration or navies
– Called on merchants when needed
– Broad-beamed, singled-masted ships
– Mostly grapneling and brutal battles
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India
– Venetian and Muslims control it
•
All trade to east had to go through
Middle East
– Question: Is there another route?
•
Water route?
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India
Venetian and Muslims control it
–
•
•
–
All trade must transit Middle East
Tariffs get expensive
Question: Another route? Water route?
What sparked it?
1. Silk & spice route to India
Venetian and Muslims control it
–
•
•
–
All trade must transit Middle East
Tariffs get expensive
Question: Another route? Water route?
2. Idea: Is the world Round?
– Scholarly belief since antiquity
• Eratosthenes diameter at 21,000 NM (pretty accurate) in
300 B.C.
– Problem: 12,000 miles to India (via sailing west)
• No ship could provision for such a long voyage
– Solution: Can we get around Africa?
Cape of Good Hope
**Portuguese were first
– King Henry (“the Navigator”)
and King John II were big
supporters of sea trade
– Commissioned Dias to try
Bartolomeau Dias
– 1487 – 1488
– Called: “Cape of Storms”
– Later named: “Cape of Good
Hope”
– **Long but Possible
1488
Cape of Good Hope
1488
Caravel
India
Vasco de Gama
2 voyages to India
– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy
– 2nd: Acts of cruelty to Indians
1498
India
Vasco de Gama
2 voyages to India
– 1st: 1/2 crew dies of scurvy
– 2nd: Acts of cruelty
1498
Americas
Spain was second
– Christopher Columbus
– Part “fool”
•
•
•
•
Said it was only 2,500 miles to India
John II of Portugal: “No”
Venice, Genoa, England: “No”
Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”
– First Voyage:
• 5 Weeks
• Bahamas (“West Indies”)
• Returned:
– Hero / Syphilis
– Three more Voyages
1492
Americas
Spain was second
– Christopher Columbus
– Part “fool”
•
•
•
•
Said it was only 2,500 miles to India
John II of Portugal: “No”
Venice, Genoa, England: “No”
Elizabeth I of Spain: “OK..whatever”
– First Voyage:
• 5 Weeks
• Bahamas (“West Indies”)
• Returned:
– Hero / Syphilis
– Three more Voyages
1492
Other Exploration
Treaty: Spain & Portugal
– 1512 : Portuguese in China
– 1522 : Ferdinand Magellan
– Brits, Dutch and French defy agreement
Results
– Italian states and Ottoman Empire diminish
in trade significance
– Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands and
Britain become preeminent world states.
Colonial Expansion
Ocean Empires
– France
– Spain
– Portugal
– Netherlands
(Dutch)
– British
1400-1900
Competition
– Trade
– Riches
– Colonial land
Needed navy for:
– Protection from
pirates
– Protection from
other states
– Military expansion
Portugal
1400-1900
Spain
1400-1900
France
1400-1900
Netherlands
1400-1900
Great Britain
1400-1900
Answer 2 Questions
How did technology change in Age of Sail?
How did technology change tactics?
Video
 Master and Commander
What is different?
 Technology
 Tactics
• Why did it change?
• How did it change?
Galley v. Sail
Changes in ship design?
–
–
–
–
Ocean-worthy vessels
Sails / Masts
Hull Design
Guns (broadside)
Changes in tactics?
–
–
–
–
Longer Guns
“Weather Gauge”
The “Line”
Boarding
Scientific Changes
–
–
–
–
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Compass
Speed estimations
Cartography
Cannon improvement
Artillery improvement
Compass, Speed & Cartography
Compass
– Invented in China (247 BC)
– Used in navigation by the 11th Century
– “Dry Compass” - developed in Europe
in the 13th century
Speed
– “Log line” – 15th Century
– First measurement of Nautical mile
Cartography
–
–
–
–
Discoveries led to improved cartography
Major updates to Ptolemy's maps
1529 – Diogo Ribiero – First World Map
Longitude, 1750: John Harrison
Compass, Speed & Cartography
Results
1.
2.
3.
4.
New Navigation: Dead reckoning
More confident navigation
More ambitious explorers
Hungry rulers and nations
Ocean-Worthy Ships
Galleys
Trireme
Carracks, Caravels & Galleons
Design Changes in 1600s
3 or more “squarerigged” masts
Crows Nests
Fighting Perches
Guns lowered
onto broadsides
Forecastles &
Aftercastles
(Anti-Piracy)
Deeper Draft
(Stability)
-
For stability
Better guns
Multiple levels
Gun ports
Hit low on
waterline &
splinter ships
Design Changes in the 1700s
Gun Changes
 More, bigger, longer-range
 Advances in metallurgy
 Rifling cannon (more accurate)
 New Tactic: “Off Fighting”
– Keep enemy at guns’ distance
Ship Design Changes
 Speed & Mobility
 More sail
 Forecastle & aftercastle reduced
– (Too much weight)
 Length increased
Culverine
Tactical Changes
 “Off-Fighting” over Boarding
 “Weather Gauge”
 “The Line”
– Single-file ships
– 74-guns or more
HMS Victory
Oldest naval ship still in commission
What is oldest commissioned ship afloat?
Ship-of-the-Line
“Weather Gauge”
Windward Ships
Leeward Ships
Advantage
“Weather Gauge”
Disadvantage
Line-of-Battle Tactics
 Early Tactics: “Bunching”
 New Tactics: “Line”
– Uncooperative navy captains
– GB assigns Army Generals to
ships to enforce discipline
• “Generals-at-Sea”
• Sailing and Fighting
Instructions of 1653
– “Line of Battle”
Line-of-Battle Tactics
 Good: Full broadsides
 Bad: Small Ships = Weak Links
 Standard: 74-guns
– “Ship fit to lie in the line”
• Must have at least 74 guns
• Named: “Ship-of-the-Line”
– Smaller ships relegated to
scouting, attacking and
defending commerce, and
communication (not the line)
Terms
 Establishes ADM ranks
– Fleet ADM = Flag ship
– RADM Upper Half
– RADM Lower Half
 “Rating” – term used to
classify ships according to
the guns it carried.
– British system
– 1st Rate through 6th Rate
First Rate
100-120 Guns
850 Men
Second Rate
90-98 Guns
700 men
Third Rate
64-80 Guns
500 men
Fourth Rate
50-60 Guns
320 men
Fifth Rate
32-44 Guns
200 men
 Frigates
 USS Constitution
Sixth Rate
20-28 Guns
140 men
Other Ships
Types
 Corvettes
 Sloops (16-18 guns)
 Schooners (4-14 guns)
 Brigs
– 20-90 men
Why so many personnel?
Required
 Handle sails
 Handle guns
– 32-pound cannon required 12 men
Firing Rates
 Average Crew: Once very 2-3 minutes
– Exhaustion
 Well Trained Crew: Once a minute
– British won because they were the best
Tactical Controversy
 “Formalist” vs “Melee “ School:
 - Formalists advocated “Conterminous” line
Tactical Controversy
 “Melee” School: dispense line when favorable
Who Won?




Formalists
Battle experience
“Melee-ists” were forced into retirement
Permanent Fighting Instructions
– Article 25: must use formalist tactics
– Formalist tactics became convention
Pros vs. Cons for Line Tactics
Pros
 Full broadsides
 Systematic
 Predictable
For an ADM, ships in a line
were Controllable
Cons
 Predictable
 Stalemate
Pros vs. Cons of Sail Warships
Pros

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
More stable
Greater distance
More sustainable
More firepower
Favored advanced
nations
– Technologically advanced
– Tactically advanced
– Sophisticated training
Cons
 Restricted in
maneuvering
 Slower
 Expensive
 Supply issues
 Training requirements
 Communications
difficulties
– Semaphore developed
Pros vs. Cons for Age of Sail
Pros

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Sustainability
Global horizons
Profitable
Off-Fighting
Structure
Education & Training
Cons

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

Expensive
Slower
Less maneuverable
Conditions onboard
Disease
**Established sea power as critical
to national interests***
Balance of Sea Power
Who ruled the seas?
European Sea Power in 1500s
 Super-powers:
 Sub-powers:
Spain & France
Portugal, Netherlands,
England
England plays smaller role in European sea
power and politics.
What sparked their rapid naval growth?
European Sea Power in 1500s
 Henry VII breaks with
Catholic church
 Threat: Spanish & French
invasion
 Decision: strong navy is
surest guarantee of
defense
1.
2.
3.
4.
Increased coastal defenses
Strengthened Royal Navy
Founded Portsmouth Naval Yard
Invested in naval development
HMS Mary Rose
 First broadside ship
 1st “off-fighting”
– 1545
Led to:
 Increased competition for sea power
 Rise of formal navies
Ramifications of Catholic Break
 Fuels Catholic-Protestant tensions in
Europe
 Series of religious wars
 Spanish Armada (1588)
 Anglo-Dutch Wars
 Wars of Succession
European Sea Power
 1500s
– Spain & France undisputed superpowers
– Henry VII & Elizabeth I
– Spanish Armada
 1600s
– Anglo-Dutch Wars (3)
– Wars of British Succession
– Other succession wars
 1700s
– French & Indian War
– Seven Years War
 1800s
Queen Elizabeth v. Phillip II
Elizabeth I
 English Queen / 1568-1603
 Excommunicated / 1570
 Mary Stuart / 1587
 Build Navy to propel eventual
invasion
 Alliance with France
Phillip II
 Spanish King / 1554-1598
 Hated Islam & Protestants
 Goal: Overthrow Elizabeth I
 Hired assassins
 Send Armada to invade
John Hawkins
 Merchant & Slave Trader
 Elizabeth I appoints him
Chief Sea Commander of
England
Two Influences:
– Successful Pirate
– Accelerated development
of ships with guns
Francis Drake
 Most famous “Privateer”
 Golden Hind raided
Spanish ships across
world
 Returned with fortune
 Knighted on his own ship
 Pivotal leader in English
Navy
Francis Drake
 Most famous “Privateer”
 Golden Hind raided
Spanish ships across world
 Returned with fortune
 Knighted on his own ship
 Pivotal leader in Navy
Spanish Armada
1588
Cause
European Politics
1. Dynastic wars
2. British privateers
3. Spanish ship seizures
4. Execution of Mary, Queen
of Scots
5. Spanish assassination
attempts on Elizabeth I
Catholic
Old
130 Ships
27,000 men
Longer Guns
“Grapple & Board”
Protestant
New
197 Ships
16,000 men
Maneuverable
Off-Fight
*Drake
*More Experience
*Weather Gauge
*Resupply
Outcome
 Storm devastates Spanish Fleet
– Began Spanish decline
 England became formidable sea power
 Proved effectiveness of guns
**Anglo-Spanish conflict ended with James I
(Catholic) restored to throne (1603)
Anglo-Dutch Wars
Three Wars
1652-1684
Cause




James I replaced Elizabeth I
Peace with Spain
Abandoned Holland
Bad blood
Holland & England natural competitors
–
–
–
–
East & West Indies
America
Navigation Act of 1651
(Oliver Cromwell)
 Competition erupts in war
•
•
•
•
•
Cromwell
Reinvents Navy
Generals at Sea
Formal Doctrine
Fighting
Instructions of
1653
Anglo-Dutch Wars
1st War



English trounce
Dutch twice
Prove merit of “the
line” and formal
tactics
Blockade Holland
into submission
1652-1684
2nd War
3rd War
Formal vs. Melee
Tactics
• Dutch again submit
• Charles II ports and
dismisses Navy
• Dutch counterattack
English make terms:
– No Navigation
Act
– West Indies for
England
– New
Amsterdam &
Hudson Valley
3rd War
• Joint Anglo-French
attack
• Dutch flood country
• Two indecisive
battles at sea
• French Navy “weak”
• Angry England
makes peace with
Dutch
• Mary to William
England’s Benefit:
- Dutch are tired
- Take over trade
•
1. Testing ground for melee vs. formal
tactics.
2. England defeats the Dutch (twice)
3. Dutch relinquish some naval strength and
commerce. England fills the vacuum.
Outcome
England is second “Kid On Block” (France)
– Big Fleet
– Experienced Fleet
– Formal tactics
– Formal training
*** Nothing could stop them! Except…
War of English Succession
English Civil War
1689-1697
Cause





James II
Angry Parliament
“William and Mary” of Holland
“Bloodless Revolution”
James flees to France
Result
 English & Dutch navies strong
and united
 James works with Louis XIV to
get back crown
 Anglo-French Conflict
Forces at Play
French Disadvantage
French Advantage
 Largest fleet in world  Brest & Toulon
 Large border
 Large Army / Land
Battle
English/Dutch Advantage
• Experience
• Unified Fleet
English/Dutch Disadvantage
• Smaller than combined
French fleet
Forces at Play
French Disadvantage
French Advantage
 Largest fleet in world  Brest & Toulon
 Large boarder
 Large Army / Land
Battle
English/Dutch Advantage
• Experience
• Unified Fleet
English/Dutch Disadvantage
• Smaller than combined
French fleet
Battles
Beachy Head (1690)
 English/Dutch
“melee”
 French double-over
and defeat
Barfleur (1692)
 French “melee”
 Stretch out
 English/Dutch break
line and win
Score:
 Formalists: +1
 Melee: 0
Score:
 Formalists: +2
 Melee: 0
Outcome
 Indecisive
 France on verge of bankruptcy
– Gives up on fleet in favor of Army
 Louis XIV recognizes William and Mary
as rules of England
Impact on Tactics:
 Formalism becomes dogma
Wars of Succession
Spanish Succession (1703-1713)
Peace (1713-1740)
Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
War of Spanish Succession 1703-1713
Spain Weak : English/Dutch take Gibraltar
– Battle of Malaga: Indecisive “formalist” tactics
– ADM Rooke : “Permanent Fighting Instructions”
– Prevents unification of French Fleets
Battle of Minorca
– Strengthens English hold of Straight of
Gibraltar
– Blockade of Toulon fleet allows conquest in
Americas
Peace
1713-1740
 Wars of succession are another testing
ground for tactics
 Outcome
– England establishes “Permanent Fighting
Instructions”—mandating Formalism
• ADM Byng executed during Seven Years War for
failure to fulfill execute “Permanent Fighting
Instructions”
– “Melee-ists” forced out of service
War of Austrian Succession 1740-1748
 ADM Thomas Mathews (Melee) v. Richard Lestock
(Formalist)
 Mathew’s fleet severely damaged
 Lestock arrested for not aiding
 Lestock ultimately acquitted, Mathews dismissed
from service
 Article 25 : “Chase”
Outcome: “Line” is King
 ADM Byng sat on
Courts Martial
Seven Years War
“French & Indian War”
1756-1763
*** First True World War ***
Theaters of War
 America
 Europe
 Mediterranean
• East Indies
• West Indies
• Africa
Major Players




British
Prussians
American Colonies
Portugese
Grand Coalition
 French
 Austrians
 Russians
 Spain
 Sweden
 French Frontiersmen
 Native Americans
Bottom Line: It was a world war
Cause : Land Disputes
British v. French
Land west of Appalachia
Austria v. Prussia
Silesia
War in the Americas : 1754
Start of War
– Ohio Valley
– Colonel George Washington
– Fort Necessity
Escalation
– Gen Edward Braddock
– Surrender of major forces at
Great Meadows
– Need for immediate
reinforcement
War in Europe
Battle for Minorca
 French amphibious operation
 Take back Minorca & Gibraltar
 British dispatch ADM Byng
 Ensuing battle devolved in
confusion
Results
 French win
 Byng executed for failing to
follow formalist tactics
 British losing in America and
Med
William Pitt “the Elder”
British Secretary of State
for War
Big Goal:


–
Expand British Empire
Naval Visionary:
1. Subsidized Prussian armies
2. Use fleet to:
a. Raid enemy coasts
b. Blockade enemy fleets
c. Convoy & support to overseas colonies
Raid Enemy Coasts
“Conjunct Operations”




Raid & Withdraw
Destroyed costal garrisons
Destroyed privateers
Draw soldiers away from front
lines
Blockade Enemy Fleets
 French made plans to invade England
 Needed to combine fleets
Problem: Brits blockaded Gibraltar
Result:
1. Battle of Lagos
2. Battle of Quiberon Bay
• In both cases: Outnumbered French Fleet driven
onto shoals and destroyed.
• Fuels Mahan’s beliefs in concentrated fleets
Battle of Lagos
 British Ships-of-Line called
into port
 French seized opportunity
 12 Ships-of-Line tried to
escape under cover of
darkness
 British Frigates see them
 15 British Ships-of-Line
chase
 Run them into Lagos Bay
 French ships destroyed or
run aground
1759
Battle of Quiberon Bay
1759
Similar Story
 French driven into bay
 Run up on shoals
 Jettison guns
 Still destroyed on shoals and in river
Convoy & Support to Colonies
British Navy in America
– Blockade St. Laurence by taking Louisburg
– Take Quebec
• Joint Army/Navy
operation
– Sea control chokes
off French forces
Battle of Quebec
 Navy-Army Cooperation
– Amphibious Ops
 Three directions
Result
 Artery blocked
 Conquest of Canada
1759
Other Operations
West Indies
 Brits had nearly
unfettered control of
seas
 Took islands at will and
profited from resources
– More amphibious ops
 Pirated gold ships
headed for Spain
 Ceded back at
conclusion
Africa / Asia
 Brits took several French
colonies around the
western coast
 Took French colonies in
India and Spanish
colony of Philippines
Peace of Paris
1763
Prussia on verge of collapse when:
 Russia withdrew
 Sweden withdrew
 France & Austria sued for peace
Major Outcome
 Truce, not treaty
 England gave back much
 England gained more: Canada, Mississippi,
Florida, number of smaller posts
*** High-Water Mark of English Seapower ***
Stage is set for American Revolution
Technology
Sailing ships with guns, Ship-of-the-line, Frigates,
long guns, carronades
Strategy
Guerre de escadre, guerre de course, blockades,
raids, etc.
Tactics
Off-fighting, formalist “line-of-battle,” weather
gauge
Sea Power
(1) England; (2) France; (3) Spanish; (4) Dutch;
(England) v. (France & Spain)
International Politics
America still highly contested.
National Politics
British turn to internal affairs.
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American Revolution