Transcript Unit 3 Environmental Science: Energy

Unit 3 Environmental Science
Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere
Overview of presentation
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How to prepare for the exam
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The format of the midyear exam
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How to respond in the mid-year exam
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Content to cover for Area of Study 2: Diversity in the Biosphere
How to prepare for the midyear exam
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Summarise notes
 study design
 text
 class notes
 SACs
 Age article: http://education.theage.com.au/cmspage.php?intid=154&intversion=63
 glossary of terms
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Past exam papers: 2005 onwards
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VAEE trial exams
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Prepare what to take to exam: pen, grey lead pencils, eraser, pens,
scientific calculator
Term
Definition
Analyse
Break down something to its components and work out how it operates
Assess
Make a judgement about or measure an outcome or value
Classify
Place in an appropriate category/group
Compare
Describe the similarities and differences
Contrast
Describe the differences
Define
State the meaning or identify the essential qualities of a term
Demonstrate
Show by using examples
Describe
Give an account of what something is like
Discuss
Examine
Examine something by sifting through the information, showing both sides of an argument/issue or
the advantages and disadvantages of a particular solution
Judge something - weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of something, or measure its value
or worth; judge whether, on balance, there are more pros or cons
Similar to discuss; sift through the issue and describe the different ‘sides’ of an issue in some detail
Explain
Provide a reason why/how something is as it is
Identify
Briefly name or state the feature, factor or component
Interpret
Translate the meaning or implications within data or text
Outline
Summarize the main points/elements
Predict
Suggest what may happen in a given scenario/situation
Quantify
Use a numerical measure
Recommend
State what you think is the best option/alternative in a given situation
State
A brief answer in response to a given situation
Suggest
Present an hypothesis or make a proposition
Evaluate
The format of the midyear exam
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The exam totals 90 marks.
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There will be a Question and Answer Book consisting of two
sections: Section A is the multiple choice section and is worth 20/90
marks, and Section B has short answer questions and is worth
70/90 of the marks.
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There is a separate answer sheet for the multiple choice questions .
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The mid-year examination will contribute 33% to the Study Score
for Unit 3; Unit 3 SACs contribute 17%.
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No marks are deducted for wrong answers.
How to respond in the midyear exam
Use the reading time to read through the questions carefully and have
a good look at the data provided.
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Read the question carefully – all the way through
Stop and think before you write - plan
Tailor your response to the scenario that has been posed – refer to
details of this scenario in your response
Ensure you have met all the requirements of the question
Be concise: use dot points and do not rewrite the question
Show all your workings for questions that require calculations
If you are asked to give a specific number of responses, give the
number requested
If you are asked to evaluate or give an opinion, be decisive
Back up your contention with facts and figures
Watch the time: 90 marks in 90 minutes
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere
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What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
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Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere
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What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?

Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the variety of
living organisms – plants,
animals and microorganisms
– in a particular area, country,
ecosystem or on Earth.
It includes the variety of
species, the variety within
species, and the variety of
different habitats and
ecosystems within a region.
Biodiversity
Biodiversity
The diversity of species
on earth has changed
over time.
New species have
evolved in response to
changes in the
environment and some
species have become
extinct.
Biodiversity
Evolution, migration
and extinctions have
occurred throughout
time.
The rate of species loss has increased in historic times, a phenomenon
known as accelerated extinction. Current rates of loss are 100 – 1000
times the historic ‘background’ levels.
(UN meeting on Convention on Biological Diversity, 2010)
Processes that allow evolutionary change
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mutation
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migration
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natural selection
Selection for a particular, advantageous
trait, which then affects the genes passed
onto the next generation
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genetic drift
Random events, that affect the proportion
of individuals with a particular trait passing
on their genes to the next generation, is
known as genetic drift.
Species and population
A species is the most definitive
classification level or taxon (or
group of organisms) that are
genetically so similar that they
can interbreed and reproduce
fertile offspring.
A population is a group of
individuals of a particular
species which share a particular
habitat in a particular area.
Habitat and range
A habitat is the type of environment the taxon is
adapted to. It may be an area with a very specific
environment, or the taxon may have a very general
habitat.
A range is the location of its
geographic area of habitat
inhabited by a taxon. It may be
continuous, or populations of the
species may be isolated or
separate but interacting, so forming
a metapopulation.
A small area of native vegetation is
deemed a remnant.
A population
Where populations are isolated
from each other, there is no
gene flow between the two
populations.
Over time, the genotype of
different populations diverge
and they may eventually form a
subspecies or a new species.
An ecosystem
An ecosystem is a
community of
interdependent species
of plants, animals and
microorganisms (the
biotic component)
occupying a certain area,
together with the soil and
other abiotic components
of the environment.
An ecosystem
The diversity of abiotic
features on Earth has
lead to the development
of many different types
of ecosystem.
Within each ecosystem
is a diversity of habitats.
An ecosystem
Within an ecosystem there
is a complex web of
relationships between
different species and with
their physical environment.
Each species has its
particular niche.
A community is a set of
populations of plants and
animals living and closely
interacting in a common
habitat over a shared
range.
An ecosystem
A trophic level
consists of all the
species of that
ecosystem that
compete for food.
An ecosystem
Relationships between individuals of different species can be:
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competition
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predation
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symbiosis: live together on an intimate relationship
- parasitism: parasite benefits, but detrimental to the host
- commensalism: one benefits; other no harm or benefit
- mutualism: both benefit
The sea anemone benefits from the clownfish because it can feed
on scraps of food left by the clownfish. The clownfish benefits by
being protected from predators by the stinging cells in the
anemone’s tentacles. The mucus coating on the clown fish’s skin
contains a chemical inhibitor that prevents the discharge of stinging
cells in the tentacles: mutualism
The small remora fish scavenges
on leftover bits of food after the reef
shark has fed. The shark is neither
helped nor harmed by the presence
of these fish: commensalism
The host is a reef fish. The tick-like creatures called isopods attach to
the host’s skin and gills and obtain their nutrients from the fish’s blood.
A isopods only survive while they are attached to the reef fish or until
the reef fish dies: parasitism
Types of biodiversity
There are three types of biodiversity:
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species diversity
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genetic diversity
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ecosystem diversity
Species diversity
Species diversity is the variety of species in
a particular ecosystem or area. Species
diversity is the number of species in an
area, that is the species richness, and the
abundance of each species.
Species diversity
Rarity
Three components can contribute to the rarity of a species:
 very low population density or small population size
 restricted geographic range
 a highly specific habitat: requires a narrow set of ecological
requirements to survive
A species only needs to display one of these characteristics to be
considered rare.
Endemism
 Endemic species are restricted to one particular location.
Regions of the world with particularly high levels of biodiversity are
called biodiversity hot spots.
Genetic diversity
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Genetic diversity is the range of genetic material contained in the alleles
of a taxon or ecosystem. It usually refers to variation in genetic
information between individuals of the same population or species, but
can also be used to refer to the genetic diversity between related
species.
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Because it is difficult to measure the genetic variation of a taxon,
appearance (phenotype) rather than their genes (genotype) is often
used to measure genetic diversity.
These happy face spiders (Theridion grallator) look different, but since they
can interbreed they are considered the same species.
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity plays an important role in adaptability and survival
of a population or species. Populations that have very little genetic
variation are at a great risk.
The sources of genetic variation are:
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mutations:
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variations in habitat: eg: a mosaic of different aged vegetation.
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gene flow: the movement of genes from one population to another.
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sexual reproduction: this
‘genetic shuffling’ is an important source
of genetic variation.
Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers to the
variety of different habitats and
ecosystems within a given area.
2010 exam
Q.14
The Southern Bent-wing Bat roosts and breeds only in caves and
mineshafts in southeastern South Australia and southwestern
Victoria.
This means that the species
a. has a wide variety of habitats.
b. is at risk of genetic swamping.
c. is endemic to this region of Australia.
d. needs demographic variation to occur to maintain population size.
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere
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What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
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Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Importance of preserving biodiversity
Benefits for humans:
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biological resource
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ecosystem services
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social benefits
Importance of preserving biodiversity
A species may be a potential biological resource in the future or
for future generations, such as for:
 food
 medicines and pharmaceuticals
 fibres or other materials
 ornamental plants and pets
 breeding stock for use in agriculture.
Biological resources
Rubber is from the latex tree, linen from flax, rope from hemp, cotton from cotton,
wool from sheep and goats, silk from silkworms. Honey, beeswax, rattan, wicker,
bamboo, timber, perfumes, spices and herbs are all from plants and animals
Approximately 20% of prescription drugs
are derived from plants.
The venom of certain snakes is the basis
for substances which enables blood clots to
form
Wheat, maize and rice supply one half of the
world’s food, and 90% of the world's food is
derived from only 15 species of plants – out of
80,000 potentially edible plants
Ecosystem services
Ecosystem services: ecosystems provide humans with many natural
services including:
 energy transfers
 waste treatment
 clean air and water
 climate stability
 soil formation and maintenance
 pollination or seed dispersal
 natural predators of pest species
 the cycling of nutrients, minerals and gases.
Ecosystem services
Leguminous
plants, such as
clover, lupines and
alfalfa, have a
symbiotic
relationship with
Rhizobia bacteria
in the nodules in
their root systems.
This allows these
plants to ‘fix’
nitrogen from the
atmosphere and
release this
essential element
to other plants
when it dies and
decays in the soil.
Social benefits of biodiversity
Social benefits: educational, scientific, cultural, spiritual, aesthetic,
tourist and recreational value.
Social benefits of biodiversity
Many native species are a part of our
cultural heritage and an important
source of tourism. Tourism from the
Great Barrier Reef contributes over
$800 million per annum, which is
additional to its value for commercial
fisheries.
Benefits of biodiversity to humans
Estimates of various benefits of biodiversity to humans ($US trillion)
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Soil formation 17.1
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Recreation 3.0
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Nutrient cycling 2.3
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Water regulation and supply 2.3
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Climate regulation (temperature and precipitation) 1.8
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Habitat 1.4
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Flood and storm protection 1.1
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Food and raw materials production 0.8
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Genetic resources 0.8
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Atmospheric gas balance 0.7
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Pollination 0.4
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All other services 1.6
Total value of biodiversity benefits to humans: $US 33.3 trillion
source: Adapted from R. Costanza et al., “The Value of the World’s Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital,” Nature,
Vol. 387 (1997), p. 256.
2008 exam
Q 5e
Discuss the reasons for maintaining biodiversity in our world for human
health and wellbeing. Include some examples in your answer. (4 marks)
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere

What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
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Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Threats to biodiversity
Biodiversity can be reduced through:
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habitat destruction or modification
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introduced species
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over-exploitation of biological resources
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economic and scientific threats to genetic diversity
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the flow-on effect of changes to other species within the ecosystem
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reduced population size
Habitat destruction or modification
Habitat destruction and modification may precipitates the loss of species
which are form and depend upon that habitat:
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habitat destruction resulting from clearing of natural habitat for
agriculture, urbanisation or other landuse.
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degradation results from the deterioration of the quality of the habitat
due to pollution, erosion, salinity or over-use.
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habitat change resulting from events such as change in fire regime,
extreme weather events, tectonic activity and climate change.
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fragmentation of the habitat, where the clearance of pockets of
vegetation leave a series of fragments of intact habitat. If the pockets of
remnant vegetation are isolated and too small to support viable
populations of species, or if the fragments are not connected, the impact
can be significant.
Habitat destruction or modification
Deforestation and increased roadbuilding in the Amazon rainforest are
a significant concern because of
increased human encroachment upon
wild areas.
Introduced species
An introduced, or exotic species is one which has been deliberately
or accidentally imported into a region.
These species may become a pest or weed to indigenous species by:
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occupying the same niche as an indigenous species within the
ecosystem, competing for resources such as food or space
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preying on indigenous species within the ecosystem
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poisonous to indigenous species
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degrading or modifying the habitat to the detriment of the indigenous
species.
Over-exploitation of biological resources
Over-exploitation results from harvesting biological resources at an
unsustainable rate.
Some examples of species which have been over-exploited include:
 the deforestation of land in the Amazon forest for timber and
agricultural land
 harvesting whales for their meat and oil
 slaughtering seals for their furs and oil
 hunting elephants and for the ivory in their tusks
 hunting rhinoceros for the use of their horn for to produce
aphrodisiacs
 over-fishing of Atlantic salmon as a source of food
 felling the trees of Easter Island by the original inhabitants to
transport their carved status to the coastline
Economic and scientific threats to genetic
diversity
The manipulation of species commonly used by humans through crop
breeding, animal husbandry and genetic modification have developed
domesticated species and hybrids which are quite different genetically
from their original, wild ancestors, and has created a much narrower
gene pool. This has lead to the loss of some genetic diversity and
lowered resilience to threats, such as diseases, plagues and extreme
weather events.
Today, 80% of our food is sources from 20 kinds of plants worldwide, and
much of our meat is sources from a few species of animal.
eg: the Irish potato famine of 1847, where the potato blight wiped out
virtually all potato crops in Ireland, as they were bred from a very small
number of ‘ancestor’ plants (brought back from the Americas) that did not
have resistance to this disease.
The flow-on effect of changes to other
species within the ecosystem
Because species within an ecosystem are
interdependent, loss or weakening of one species
can have a flow on effect upon the other species it
interacts with.
This could be the impact of the loss or weakening of
a species which:
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is a food source
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provides a vital component to the niche habitat
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assists with a plant’s pollination or seed dispersal
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is a predator, competitor or has a symbiotic
relationship with the species.
Reduced population size
Threats may not lead to the extinction of species, but may significantly
reduce population size. This in itself becomes a threat as the
population becomes vulnerability to a cascade of genetic,
demographic and environmental factors.
All the animals shown above suffer from low population size. Scientists
estimate that about 1000 Kemp’s Ridley sea turtles (left), 300 right
whales (centre) and 65 northern hairy-nosed wombats (right) survive in
the wild.
Reduced population size
Very small populations pose a number of dangers:
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greater vulnerability to genetic drift
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inbreeding depression
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low genetic variation, because the gene pool is greatly reduced
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possibility of genetic swamping
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demographic variation
Vulnerability to genetic drift
Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift, that is, that
random chance events will reduce the frequency of particular alleles,
which could be alleles for characteristics which confer an advantage
to the next generation.
Inbreeding depression
In any population there may be alleles for a deleterious trait. In a large
population, there is a low probability an individual will wind up with both
alleles for the deleterious trait. In a small population, where mating between
two individuals with similar genotype is inevitable, there is a greater chance
an individual will have two alleles for such a trait, and that that
disadvantageous trait will be expressed.
Inbreeding over a number of generations can lead to the genetic weakening
of the population at a whole, a phenomenon called inbreeding depression.
A small number of adders (Vipera berus)
experienced inbreeding depression when farming
activities in Sweden isolated them from other
adder populations. Higher proportions of stillborn
and deformed offspring were born in the isolated
population than in the larger populations. When
researchers introduced adders from other
populations - an example of outbreeding - the
isolated population recovered and produced a
higher proportion of viable offspring.
Low Genetic Variation
Genetic variation allows species to adapt and evolve in response to
changing environmental conditions. For example, if a population is
exposed to a new disease, natural selection will confer advantage to
individuals with genes for resistance to the disease - if they exist in the
population.
Cheetah (left) populations have low amounts of genetic variation, while
lion (right) populations typically have higher amounts. The lion in more
likely to be resilient to any threats.
In a small population there will be less genetic diversity.
Low Genetic Variation
As an endangered species
dwindles, it loses genetic variation
- and even if the species
rebounds, its level of genetic
variation will not. Genetic variation
will only slowly be restored
through the accumulation of
mutations, migration and genetic
shuffling over many generations.
For this reason, an endangered
species with low genetic variation
may risk extinction long after its
population size has recovered.
Genetic swamping
If two isolated populations of a species are reunited through a
habitat change or reintroduction program, the genetic diversity
of the smaller population may be lost in the process. This is
genetic swamping, where the event may lead to the ‘dilution’
or loss of potentially advantageous alleles it contained.
Demographic variation
In any population there is natural variation in population dynamics:
the birth rates, death rates, sex ratio, migration etc. Normally, this
does not have a significant impact on the long term viability of the
population as a whole, but where the population is very small, this
natural demographic variation can have deleterious effects on the
whole population.
eg: a species of bird may vary in the number of eggs laid in the
breeding system. If the population reaches very small numbers and
then has a year where the number of eggs laid is within its normal
variability, but at its lowest value within that range, its risk of
extinction may rise.
2008 exam
Q 14. Two previously isolated populations of a particular species come
into contact and breed with each other. One of the populations is
much larger than the other.
A potential consequence for the smaller population may be:
a. genetic drift
b. genetic swamping
c. inbreeding
d. demographic variation
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere
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What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
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Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Assessment of biodiversity
Measuring the species richness or diversity of a particular area is usually
done by surveys and monitoring by:
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counting the species and numbers of individuals via:
 sight and count individuals eg: spotlighting
 capture (and possibly tag) and release the individuals
 electronic surveillance
 indirect evidence of the species, eg: scats, tracks
 recordings of sightings by field naturalists
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assessing of randomly selected sample quadrats or transects.
 species present
 relative abundance
Other aspects may also be investigated: weight, health, signs of breeding.
Genetic diversity can be conducted through genetic research, or from
observing variation on phenotype.
Assessment of biodiversity
This data can then be used to assess biodiversity.
The numerical methods for measuring biodiversity include:
 species richness: the number of species in a region; the more
species, the greater the richness. Does not take into account of the
number of individuals of each species present.
 species diversity: the number of different species and the number of
individuals of each species (ie: each species’ relative abundance)
 species evenness: the degree of similarity of population size for each
of the species; the more similar the abundance of each species the
greater the evenness. A higher level of biodiversity exists when
species of similar trophic levels have high species evenness.
 endemism: the number of endemic species (that only occur in one
region)
 rarity: the number of rare species.
Assessment of biodiversity
Two indices which are commonly used to measure the species diversity
of a region:
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Simpson’s Diversity Index (D): index which takes into account the
species richness and the abundance of each species.
Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index (H): index which takes into account
species richness and abundance of each species within a habitat,
but is increased by having high species evenness
Other indices can be created to measure species diversity.
You will be given the formula for index in exam.
Assessment of biodiversity
In measuring biodiversity, it is common to collect two or more sets
of data for comparison or change over time.
2010 exam:
Assessment of biodiversity
But there is natural variability in the data collected within an
ecosystems because:
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variation over space: the natural and random variation in the
distribution of species within its range
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variation over time: eg: diurnal changes, seasonal changes, lunar
and tidal movements, breeding periods etc
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demographic variations: natural variations in birth rate, death rate,
sex ratio.
Because ecological systems show a high level of natural variability it
is necessary to determine whether there is a significant difference or
change between two sets of data.
Assessment of biodiversity
Statistical analysis can be used to determine whether there has been
significant difference or change. This can be achieved by checking if
the difference or change falls within the known level of variation.
The more data, the more reliable the analysis.
2006 exam
Q10:
a.
b.
c.
d.
Species diversity is best measured by counting:
the total number of species
the total number of individuals
the number of species and the relative abundance of each
the number of different ecosystems available in the habitat
Q 11: Genetic diversity in best assessed by determining:
a. small variations within a species
b. the risk of extinction of the species
c. the relative abundance of the species
d. the number of different species in the environment
2006 exam
Q 16. A scientist monitors a population of possums for six years.
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Population
44
42
45
40
43
44
Which conclusion best supports the above data:
a. The population is stable
b. The population is steadily increasing
c. An exotic competitor was removed in 2002
d. A predator was introduced into the habitat in 2003.
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere

What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?

Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Conservation of biodiversity
Preservation: protect the biosphere in its natural state.
(Ecologically) sustainable development: the use of biological resources
in a way and at a rate that does not limit its availability to future
generations (ie: intergenerational equity).
Precautionary principle: where there is a threat of serious or
irreversible damage to the environment by a proposed activity, the
lack of full scientific certainty about the possible impacts should not
be used as a reason to proceed.
Conservation of biodiversity
When planning conservation
strategies, biodiversity needs to be
considered at the:
 gene level
 population level
 species level
 ecosystem or habitat level
The most effective conservation
occurs when all are considered
together.
Conservation of biodiversity
Methods of managing biodiversity include:
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risk assessment: evaluating the level of threat the species,
population or ecosystem is exposed to
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evaluating the risk of potential developments
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protecting individual species or specific populations of a species
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maintaining or rehabilitating the habitat
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pest control
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relocation and reintroduction programs
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sustainable use of biological resources
Risk assessment
Risk of extinction (ER) involves the use of data to determine either:
 the probability of extinction of the species for a given period,
eg: ER 80% (0.8) in the next 10 years.
 the carrying capacity of the habitat and how a known amount of
habitat loss is likely to impact upon population numbers within a given
period, ie: ER 10% (or 0.1) in next 5 years if scenario x occurs.
Risk of extinction requires the following data:
 demographic data on the species
 current population numbers and the rate of population loss
 the amount of habitat area (territory) required by each individual of the
species
 the amount of remaining habitat and its quality.
Risk assessment can also be determined by ascertaining the minimum
viable population required for the species to survive.
2010 exam
Q. 13
The probability (calculated risk) of extinction of this Southern Bentwing Bat population over the next fifteen years is estimated to be
0.70. A larger population in a second separate cave system has a
probability of extinction estimated to be 0.20 over the same period.
Which of the following best gives the probability of extinction of both
populations in the next fifteen years?
a. 0.14
b. 0.27
c. 0.50
d. 0.97
Risk assessment
Population Viability Analysis (PVA) is a tool used to assist in
determining the level of risk and the appropriate management
strategies to conserve a species or population.
It uses computer-based ecological modelling and the information used
in risk assessment.
It uses this information to predict the likely outcome, for the species or
population, of various scenario, and:
 ranks the management options available, and
 identifies where further research is needed.
2005 exam
Q.4e
Outline a scientific process for evaluating the threats to the species.
(1 mark)
Population Viability Analysis (PVA)
Risk of extinction (ER)
Risk assessment
Assigning conservation status classifies the level of risk confronting a taxon.
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has
devised a system to award conservation status – ‘redlist’.
The criteria used include:
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the population size and the observed population change over time
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the total number of mature adults
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the extent of the species’ range (geographic distribution)
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the probability of extinction in the wild over a designated number of
years or generations.
Commonwealth and state government use a similar process to assign
conservation status.
conservation
status
definition
Extinct
no reasonable doubt the last individual has
died
Extinct in wild
survives only in cultivation or captivity or
naturalised community
Critically endangered
extreme high risk of extinction in the wild in
the immediate future
ER ≥ 50% within 10
years or 3 generations
Endangered
very high risk of extinction in the wild in the
near future
ER ≥ 20% within 20
years or 5 generations
Vulnerable
high risk of extinction in the wild in the
medium-term future
ER ≥ 10% within 100
years
Conservation dependent
part of a conservation program, the
cessation of which would result in the taxon
moving into one of the above categories
Data deficient
Low risk
Not evaluated
risk of extinction
2007 exam
Q 17
In Victoria, the conservation status of the Striped Legless Lizard is
‘endangered’, while the Swamp Skink is regarded as ‘vulnerable’:
This means the Striped Legless Lizard:
a. is in competition with the Swamp Skink
b. will survive for longer than the Swamp Skink
c. has a population size smaller than the Swamp Skink
d. is at greater risk of extinction than the Swamp Skink
Evaluating the risk of potential developments
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is the assessment of
environmental impact of a major development before it proceeds. It is an
example of the precautionary principle in action.
It may not prevent development from proceeding, even if environmental
degradation is predicted to occur, if the potential social and economic or
other environmental benefits are deemed to outweigh the potential losses.
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An EIA involves:
synthesis of existing information on native species and the region
additional research conducted by experts
considers alternative designs and locations
includes risk assessment techniques
allows for community consultation and input
arranges for ongoing monitoring if the project does proceed
attempts to balance environmental, social and economic considerations.
Evaluating the risk of potential developments
An EIA is required when the proposal:
 requires the clearing over 10ha of native vegetation
 is deemed to be likely to affect endangered species
 is proposed for a region of high conservation significance
 is not authorised under any existing forest management plan
 may eventually involve the loss of significant proportion of an
species’ habitat
 is located within a wetland listed under the Ramsar Convention
 may have an extensive or major impact on an aquatic, estuarine or
marine ecosystem
 may have an extensive or major impact on human health
 has potential carbon emissions exceeding 200 000 tonnes
Protecting individual species or specific
populations of a species
International level:
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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES) 1992
Ensures that the international trade in biological resources does not pose a threat or
contribute to the decline or possible extinction of any species
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Ramsar Convention 1983
Conservation of wetland habitats and paths used by migratory birds
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Convention on Biological Diversity 1992
National level:
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National Strategy for the Conservation of Australia’s Biological Diversity 1996
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Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999
State level:
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Victorian Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988
Provides legal protection and a Recovery Plan for species and ecosystems which have been
identified as being ‘threatened’.
Flora & Fauna Guarantee Act (1988)
It involves a process of investigation and research.
If a species is found to be in need to protection, it is listed as
‘threatened’ and an Action Statement is produced which:
 identifies threats to the species and designates its conservation
status
 confers legal protection for the species; authorities must prosecute
those who injure or cause the loss of individuals of the species
 establishes a management plan (Recovery Plan) for its conservation
 assigns responsibility to government agencies and individuals
 establishes ongoing monitoring
 arranges for review of their status from time to time
Members of the public, including experts, can nominate a species or
Victorian population they believe is at risk of extinction.
Protecting and rehabilitating habitat
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Conservation reserves: national parks, conservation reserves, multiuse reserves
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Reducing vegetation clearance
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Habitat rehabilitation: revegetation, replanting, erosion repair,
address contamination and pollution
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Habitat maintenance: prevention of degradation: control burning to
produce a mosaic of different aged habitats, fencing to obstruct
pests, erosion prevention, etc
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Creating or preserving wildlife corridors which link fragments of
remnant vegetation:
 promoting gene flow and genetic diversity
 the ability for individuals to migrate in response to environmental
change
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2009/03/jaguars/photo-map-interactive
Pest control
The control of pest animals, weeds or diseases can be achieved by:
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culling or relocating pests and weed
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erecting fences to keep out pests, methods of preventing seeds
and diseases from entering areas.
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introducing natural predators to the pest
Translocation and reintroduction programs
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Native species may over-breed and be at risk of exceeding their habitat’s
carrying capacity. Translocation can overcome this problem.
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Individuals from one population may be translocated to another region
where population numbers are low or have died out.
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Species may be propagated in herbaria or bred through a captive breeding
program zoos or sanctuaries, and reintroduced back into the wild.
The problems associated with these strategies can be reduced by:
 carefully staged transitions in reintroductions
 tracking the parentage of individuals in the program (‘pedigree books’)
to reduce inbreeding
 outbreeding
- swap individuals between different breeding programs
- add individuals from the wild to the program from time to time
- releases of some captive bred individuals to the wild populations
 genetic testing and monitoring of their phenotype variety.
Sustainable use of biological resources
The concept of conservation and sustainable development does not
preclude the harvesting of use of a species or region, but they must be
used in a way that ensures it is available for future generations
This can be achieved through:
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Ecotourism: allowing tourist use of the site but in a way which causes
least possible degradation to the site and has an environmental
educative component.
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Sustainable harvesting of biological resources: resources, such as
trees and fish, are harvested or used at a rate which minimises impact
and ensure the resource is maintained into the long term future.
2005 exam
Q. 10. Which one of the following management strategies is likely to
increase genetic diversity in a population of a species?
a. wildlife corridors connecting different habitats
b. culling some animals to allow more access to food
c. fencing their breeding habitat to exclude predators
d. removal of some pairs for a captive breeding program and
reintroduction to this habitat
Evaluating efforts to protect biodiversity
Requires research, surveying and/or monitoring to establish:
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Has the genetic diversity increased?
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Have the species/population bred in the wild?
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Has the health of individuals been maintained?
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Has the range of the species/population expanded?
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Have pest species declined?
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Has habitat quality improved?
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Has species’ abundance or diversity been maintained or increased?
Overview of Area of Study 2:
Diversity in the Biosphere
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What is biodiversity?
Why is it important?
What are the threats to biodiversity?
How is biodiversity assessed?
How is biodiversity maintained and protected?
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Examination of a selected endangered species and its management.
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Your endangered species
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a description of the animal and its survival needs: its original range, habitat and
other requirements
the current geographic locations of the remaining populations and a history of its
population decline, including the threats that have caused its decline and current
population numbers
the species’ conservation status, what this status means in terms of level of threat
and its risk of extinction, and the reasons why it has been awarded this status
strategies set out in the Action Statement to conserve the species and the
stakeholders involved in the species’ conservation and their roles
evaluation of the strategies implemented to conserve the species
a detailed description of a remaining population of the species:
 the habitat it provides
 the threats that exist in this population
 strategies which have been implemented to protect this population
 monitoring used to evaluate the strategies
 an evaluation of how the population is being managed