Transcript Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of

Gender Role Attitudes and the
Labour Market Outcomes of Women
Across OECD Countries
By Nicole M. Fortin
Department of Economics
University of British Columbia
April 2005
Paper prepared for the Oxford Review of Economic Policy
Special Issue on Gender and the Life-Cycle
Stylized Facts of Interest


After two decades on spectacular gains, in many OECD countries
(e.g. Austria, Canada, Denmark, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Sweden,
United States) progress in the gender earnings gap has more or
less stalled since the mid 1990s.
There seems to be a stabilization in gender role attitudes in postWWII cohorts.


A dramatic and episodic change in the education (levels and
fields) of women for cohorts born after the late 1940s in the
United States is also documented by Goldin (2004).


This troubling trend is occurring, perhaps concurrently, in an
era of renewed interest for family and religious values in
many countries.
Her main explanation for the change is contraceptive
innovation (namely the Pill) (Goldin and Katz, 2002).
Here changes across countries emerge as more complex.
2
■ Bernstein (EPI, 2005) presents the following view of the US gender pay ratio
■ The recent closing of the pay is due exclusively to male workers, particularly
in manufacturing, losing ground relative to women.
3
Objective of the paper




The main goal of the paper is to evaluate the impact of work
values and gender role attitudes on women’s labour market
outcomes across OECD countries, comparing individual outcomes
with country-specific ones.
More specifically, I look at employment rates, incidence of parttime work and the gender pay gap.
This paper explores the possibility that the stabilization of gender
role attitudes in post-WWII cohorts may be a contributing factor
to the slowing of the economic progress of women.
Related Issue: Was the convergence in male and female
educational and labour market outcomes from the 1970s to the
1990s an episodic change?
4
Related literature

o
Convergence in men and women labour market outcomes:
Blau and Kahn (2004): slowdown in convergence in the 1990s is
linked to unexplained (by education and experience) part of the
gender gap
Goldin (2004), Goldin and Katz (2002): changes in labour market
outcomes of cohorts born from late 1940s on is due to innovation
in contraception (the Pill)
Gender role attitudes and women’s labor market outcomes:
Vella (1994): using Australian data find a significant positive
impact of an index of “favorable” gender role attitude on
educational attainment, labour supply and wages of women.
He predicts women’s attitude on the basis of parental education
and religious affiliation.
5
Related literature



Attitudes toward working women and religiosity;
Thornton, Alwin and Camburn (1983): find that fundamentalist
Protestant views preserve more traditional outlooks.
(also using the World Value Surveys) :
Guiso, Sapienzad and Zingalese (2003): look at an array of
economic attitudes and find religiosity is associated with less
favorable attitudes toward working women
Algan and Cahuc (2004):develop a model where gender bias in
social status gives rise to job protection and family policies
detrimental to women’s employment. They find that the Catholic
religion, in particular, is more conservative with regards to the
traditional division of work in the family.
Experimental studies of gender differences in work values:
Andreoni and Vesterlund, (2001): altruism and greed
Gneezy, Niederle, and Rustichini, 2003): leadership and
competitiveness
6
Related literature

Impact of work values (also called “soft skills”) and
gender role attitudes on labour market outcomes
Day and Devlin (1998): returns to volunteering
Kuhn and Weinberger (2002): returns to leadership
Fortin (2004): impact of greed, leader and altruism on the gender
wage gap
Borghans, ter Weel and Weinberg (2005): look that the growth
rate of the importance of interpersonal interactions in the labor
market

Theoretical framework
Akerlof and Kranton (2000) have proposed an identity based
model where the gender-job association works to the detriment
of women engaged in male professions. Make the point that
propaganda was necessary to convince women to participate in
work effort in WWII.
Bisin and Verdier (2000) model the cultural transmission of ethnic
and religious traits.
7
Data



The paper uses three waves of the World Value Surveys (WVS):
the 1990-93 and 1995-97 waves (ICPSR 2970), and 1999-2001
wave (ICPSR 3975), which also includes answers to the European
Value Survey (EVS).
The coverage of societies/countries in the Values Studies has
grown from 43 in the 1990 wave to 62 in the 1995 wave and 82 in
the 2000 wave.
Because of the difficulty of finding comparable measures of the
gender pay gap across countries, I limit my analysis to 24-26
OECD societies/countries.
8
Countries selected

They include the following countries, classified according to the
gender-sensitive typology of countries proposed by Siaroff
(1994):





Protestant social democratic states: Sweden, Finland, Iceland,
Norway and Denmark.
Protestant liberal states: Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and
the United States, with minimal family welfare but a relatively
egalitarian labour market
Advanced Christian democratic states: Austria, Belgium, France, Italy,
Germany and the Netherlands
Late female mobilization states: Greece, Ireland, Japan, Portugal,
Spain, Switzerland and Turkey, although Japan and Turkey are
actually singletons.
Transition from communist regimes: Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland,
Slovakia.
9
Gender pay ratio




Data on the gender pay gap for these countries for periods
corresponding roughly to the ones of the WVS were available
from secondary sources, notably the OECD, Eurostat among
others.
In view of important problems in finding figures for the gender
pay ratio that are comparable across countries, I paid close
attention to the methodologies used and supplemented data from
reporting agencies with those from individual researchers.
Two-year averages when available from various sources: OECD,
Employment Outlook 2002, Eurostat 2005, Melkas and Anker
(2003) for 1990 figures, and others (Canada: Fortin and Schirle,
2004; Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovakia: Newell, A. and B.
Reilly, 2000; Greece, Iceland and Norway: Bart et al, 2002;
Poland: Grajek, 2003; Portugal: Vieira et al., 2003; Spain: Moltó,
2002; Turkey: Selim and İlkkaracan, 2002; United States: US-DL,
2004).
As in other studies, there are substantial limits to comparability
across countries.
10
Table A1. Gender Earnings Ratio by Country
WVS
Country
No.
17
42
7
12
33
6
23
1
87
16
21
9
4
13
5
18
25
41
85
8
19
26
44
11
2
3
Country
Acronym
19901993
19951997
19992001
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Canada
Czech Republic
Denmark
Finland
France
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Netherlands
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Slovakia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
United States
United Kingdom
West Germany
Unweighted Average
AS
AT
BE
CA
CZ
DK
FI
FR
GR
HU
IS
IE
IT
JP
NL
NO
PL
PT
SK
ES
SE
CH
TK
US
UK
DEW
0.80
0.68
0.75
0.69
0.73
0.83
0.75
0.75
0.79
0.81
0.87
0.80
0.83
0.56
0.72
0.85
0.82
0.71
0.66
0.72
0.78
0.69
0.60
0.73
0.69
0.71
0.74
0.83
0.79
0.89
0.74
0.77
0.86
0.83
0.81
0.79
0.79
0.84
0.80
0.82
0.59
0.78
0.86
0.78
0.74
0.78
0.79
0.83
0.70
0.65
0.76
0.72
0.77
0.78
0.84
0.80
0.88
0.74
0.78
0.86
0.82
0.88
0.80
0.79
0.84
0.80
0.85
0.64
0.79
0.86
0.85
0.74
0.79
0.86
0.83
0.78
0.78
0.78
0.75
0.80
0.81
11
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:
Questions on Gender Role Attitudes
Do you agree or disagree with the following statements?
1990- 19991997
2001
V128 V78 When jobs are scarce, men should have more
right to a job than women
V129
When jobs are scarce, people
should be forced to retire early
V130 V79 When jobs are scarce, employers should give
priority to [BRITISH] people over immigrants
Agree
Neither
Disagree
DK
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
For each of the following statements I read out, can you tell me how much you agree with each. Do you
agree strongly, agree, disagree, or disagree strongly?
1990- 1999Agree
Agree
Disagree
Strongly
1997
2001
strongly
disagree
V113 One of my main goals in life has been to
1
2
3
4
make my parents proud
V114 I make a lot of effort to live up to what my
1
2
3
4
friends expect
V98
V115 A working mother can establish just as
1
2
3
4
warm and secure a relationship with her
children as a mother who does not work
V99
V116 Being a housewife is just as
1
2
3
4
fulfilling as working for pay
V100 V117 Both the husband and wife should
1
2
3
4
contribute to household income
V101 V118 On the whole, men make better political
1
2
3
4
leaders than women do
V103 V119 A university education is more important
1
2
3
4
for a boy than for a girl
DK
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
12
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:
Questions on Work Values
Here are some more aspects of a job that people say are important. Please look at them and tell me which
ones you personally think are important in a job? (CODE ALL MENTIONED)
19901999NOT
1997
2001
MENTIONED
MENTIONED
V86
Good pay
1
2
V75
V87
Not too much pressure
1
2
V76
V88
Good job security
1
2
V77
V89
A job respected by people in general
1
2
V78
V90
Good hours
1
2
V79
V91
An
opportunity
to
use
initiative
1
2
V80
V92
Generous holidays
1
2
V81
V93
A job in which you feel you can achieve something
1
2
V82
V94
A responsible job
1
2
V83
V95
A job that is interesting
1
2
V84
V96
A job that meets one's abilities
1
2
V85
EVS
C024
A useful job to society
1
2
C025
Meeting people
1
2
V128 1990-97 V144 1999-2001
Competition is good. It
stimulates people to work hard
and develop new ideas
1
2
3
4
DK=99
Competition is harmful. It
brings out the worst in people
5
6
7
8
9
10
13
WORLD VALUE SURVEYS:
Questions on Volunteering
Please look carefully at the following list of voluntary organizations and activities and say...
A)
which, if any, do you belong to? (Code all `yes' answers as 1, if not mentioned code as 2)
B) And for which, if any, are you currently doing unpaid voluntary work?
[Code all `yes' answers as 1; if not mentioned code as 2]
199019991997
2001
Phil
V35
V54
Social welfare services for elderly, handicapped or
deprived people
Pers
V28
V55
Religious or church organizations
Pers
V30
V56
Education, arts, music or cultural activities
Lead
V31
V57
Labor unions
Lead
V32
V58
Political parties or groups
Phil
V35
V59
Local community action on issues like poverty,
employment, housing, racial equality
Phil
V35
V60
Third world development or human rights
Phil
V33
V61
Conservation, environmental, animal rights groups
Lead
V34
V62
Professional associations
Phil
V36
V63
Youth work (scouts, guides, youth clubs, etc.)
Lead
V29
V64
Sports or recreation
Phil
V36
V65
Women’s groups
Phil
V36
V66
Peace movement
Phil
V36
V67
Voluntary organizations concerned with health
Do voluntary
Not
work
Mentioned
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
14
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1. Average Gender Role Attitudes and Work Values Across Birth Cohorts
Birth Cohort:
<1935
Gender Role Attitudes:
Scarce jobs should
0.36
go to men first
Working mom warm
with kids
0.66
Being a housewife
fulfilling
0.69
Both should
0.79
contribute income¹
19361945
Women
1946
1956
-1955 -1965
>1965
<1935
19361945
Men
1946
-1955
1956
-1965
>1965
0.32
0.23
0.20
0.15
0.38
0.32
0.26
0.23
0.21
0.75
0.80
0.79
0.80
0.59
0.67
0.71
0.71
0.73
0.65
0.58
0.58
0.57
0.72
0.67
0.63
0.61
0.63
0.80
0.81
0.77
0.82
0.82
0.75
0.76
0.74
0.78
Important Aspects of Job:
0.63
Good pay
0.68
0.73
0.75
0.79
0.71
0.73
0.78
0.80
0.83
0.47
0.49
0.53
0.57
0.59
0.44
0.42
0.46
0.49
0.54
Useful job to society² 0.57
0.46
0.44
0.40
0.40
0.28
0.39
0.42
0.37
0.38
Meeting people²
0.61
0.53
0.50
0.52
0.56
0.62
0.41
0.44
0.47
0.48
Competition OK
0.63
0.62
0.61
0.61
0.60
0.67
0.65
0.65
0.64
0.64
Number of children
Actual
2.91
2.60
2.30
2.00
1.11
2.77
2.48
2.25
1.86
0.76
Ideal
2.76
2.63
2.54
2.49
2.39
2.67
2.55
2.51
2.44
2.42
Good hours
15
Empirical Results

The issue of causality is a difficult one: Were the women’s
attitudes formed before their employment decisions, in their
youth for example, or are these attitudes subsequent
rationalizations to their previous labour market choices?

I attempt to addressed it, albeit imperfectly, in various ways.

In all individual regressions:




1) country-fixed effects are included in all regressions
2) country-average of the attitudes and values are included
3) performed on a sample of immigrant women and of men
In country level regressions:

1) average men’s responses are used
16
(1)
Table 2.
Determinants of
Employment
Status:
Marginal Effects
from a Probit Model
(2)
(3)
(4)
Women
Education (primary omitted):
Secondary
Upper secondary
Tertiary
Age
Married
Divorced, separated
No Kids
0.068
(5.01)
0.137
(6.47)
0.251
(9.28)
0.001
(0.69)
-0.037
(-1.67)
0.033
(1.32)
0.179
(7.67)
Men
0.072
(3.58)
0.128
(6.84)
0.216
(11.05)
0.003
(4.44)
0.010
(0.44)
0.032
(1.21)
0.165
(8.05)
0.051
(3.94)
0.101
(4.97)
0.187
(7.90)
0.001
(1.19)
-0.040
(-2.02)
0.026
(1.18)
0.175
(7.78)
0.194
(193)
0.369
(3.35)
0.275
(2.31)
0.004
(3.78)
-0.083
(-0.88)
-0.027
(-0.12)
0.149
(1.87)
0.043
(4.47)
0.065
(5.17)
0.103
(4.75)
0.000
(-0.32)
0.110
(8.39)
0.010
(0.70)
0.003
(0.27)
-0.068
(-5.82)
0.147
(7.58)
-0.084
(-5.92)
-0.049
(-2.65)
0.129
(7.49)
-0.078
(-5.82)
0.103
(6.08)
-0.077
(-7.34)
0.138
(9.58)
-0.087
(-10.70)
-0.222
(-4.57)
0.129
(6.52)
-0.141
(-2.41)
-0.007
(-0.95)
0.129
(1.02)
-0.004
(-0.70)
0.029
(1.35)
0.022
(1.66)
0.006
(0.58)
0.006
(0.58)
0.048
(0.50)
-0.060
(-0.86)
0.036
(1.62)
0.011
(0.93)
0.026
(1.21)
0.022
(1.39)
-0.002
(-0.14)
-0.037
(-2.63)
0.023
(1.71)
0.032
(1.12)
0.041
(2.96)
0.032
(1.10)
0.032
(2.81)
0.125
(11.56)
-0.047
(-1.46)
0.005
(0.32)
0.077
(3.67)
-0.047
(-1.95)
-0.020
(-0.90)
0.127
(12.12)
-0.010
(-0.61)
0.001
(0.04)
0.274
(3.34)
-0.025
(-0.42)
-0.025
(-0.46)
0.040
(5.53)
-0.039
(-1.29)
0.018
(2.53)
No
No
No
Yes
No
No
667.37
24433
26
3477.8
24433
26
713.06
6453
15
37573.2
23286
23
481.78
362
8
914.38
21079
26
Important in a Job:
Good pay
Good hours
Useful to society
Meeting people
Competition is OK
Volunteer in Organizations
with leader building
skills
charitable
religious and cultural
Chi-2
No. obs
No. countries
(6)
0.053
(4.40)
0.109
(5.28)
0.212
(7.91)
0.001
(1.46)
-0.033
(-1.54)
0.034
(1.38)
0.181
(7.84)
Gender Role Attitudes:
Scarce jobs should go
to men first
Working mom warm
with kids
Being a housewife
fulfilling
Both spouses should
contribute income
Country Average Gender
Role Attitudes
(5)
Immigrant
Women
17
(1)
Table 3.
Determinants of
Incidence of PartTime Work among
Employees:
Marginal Effects from
a Probit Model
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Men
-0.049
(-3.54)
-0.027
(-1.67)
-0.040
(-2.34)
-0.001
(-1.42)
0.009
(0.53)
-0.049
(-2.47)
-0.102
(-3.96)
-0.056
(-2.31)
-0.041
(-1.55)
-0.038
(-1.58)
-0.002
(-1.91)
0.043
(1.99)
-0.034
(-1.89)
-0.059
(-1.87)
-0.044
(-2.86)
-0.022
(-1.21)
-0.031
(-1.71)
-0.001
(-1.37)
0.009
(0.57)
-0.049
(-2.50)
-0.104
(-4.03)
-0.010
(-2.52)
0.002
(0.36)
0.009
(1.60)
0.000
(-1.24)
-0.048
(-6.93)
-0.012
(-1.56)
0.006
(0.80)
0.015
(0.89)
-0.028
(-2.36)
0.033
(3.26)
-0.014
(-0.49)
-0.028
(-1.45)
0.012
(1.32)
-0.051
(-3.15)
0.019
(1.15)
-0.027
(-2.50)
0.034
(3.75)
-0.001
(-0.29)
-0.007
(2.09)
-0.003
(-1.26)
-0.034
(-3.53)
0.050
(5.26)
-0.027
(-1.35)
0.048
(3.16)
-0.016
(-1.38)
-0.006
-0.057
(-1.43)
(-0.49)
-0.032
(-3.31)
0.052
(5.09)
-0.009
(-2.34)
0.010
(2.32)
-0.055
(-3.66)
-0.054
(-1.38)
-0.026
(-2.72)
0.014
(1.62)
0.063
(4.90)
0.001
(0.06)
0.028
(1.41)
0.046
(1.38)
-0.027
(-3.03)
0.022
(3.46)
0.064
(4.67)
-0.010
(-2.39)
0.002
(0.54)
0.015
(2.05)
No
No
No
Yes
No
1104.11
15028
26
477.14
15028
26
174.26
4469
15
11881.2
14756
26
3938.23
18221
26
Women
Education (primary omitted):
Secondary
Upper secondary
Tertiary
Age
Married
Divorced, separated
No Kids
-0.052
(-3.55)
-0.032
(-1.95)
-0.045
(-2.58)
-0.001
(-1.02)
0.008
(0.46)
-0.053
(-2.69)
-0.105
(-4.00)
Gender Role Attitudes:
Scarce jobs should go
to men first
Working mom warm
with kids
Being a housewife
fulfilling
Both spouses should
contribute income
Important in a Job:
Good pay
Good hours
Useful to society
Meeting people
Competition is OK
-0.054
(-3.55)
Volunteer in Organizations
with leader building
skills
charitable
religious and cultural
Country Average Gender
Role Attitudes
Chi-2
No. obs
No. countries
18
.75
.5
1
SK
DE
CZ
SE NO
SEDK
SE
NO FI
IS
DK CZ
HU
SK
FI
IS US
AT
GR US
UK
CH
PL
NLCA
AS
US
PT
DEW
UK
HU
JP
CADE
FI
DEW
FRBE IT JP
JP
IE
PT
AT
CH
FR
NL
IT
IE
BE
PL
ES
Women's Employment Rate
Women's Employment Rate
1
PL
ES
ES
TK
.25
TK
TK
0
SK
DE CZ
DKSE
SE
FI
IS
DK
CZ
SK
US
FI
IS
US
GR
UK
CA
AS
US
PT NL
DEW
UK
HU
JP
CA
DE
FI
IT
FR BE
JP
JP
PT
FR
NL
IT
IE
BE
ES
.75
PL
DEW
AT
.5
PL
ES
ES
TK
.25
TK
TK
0
.1
.3
.5
.5
1
1
SK
CZ
SE
DK
FINO
NO SE
DK
SE
IS
SK HU CZ
IS
GR
UK
PL
AS US
NL
DEWPT
UK
HU
CA
IT
DEW
BEFR
PT
AT
FR
IT NL
IE
BE
PL
ES
.75
DE
.5
FIUS
CA
US
FI
JP
JP
JP
ES
ES
TK
.25
TK
TK
0
Women's Employment Rate
DE
.7
.9
b) Working Mother Warm with Kids
a) Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men
Women's Employment Rate
NO SE
NO
HU
.75
.5
SK
CZ
DE
DK
NO
FI
PL
CZ
HUDK IS
SK
FI
IS
AT
US
GRNL
UKPL
CA
PTHU
UK
JP
FI CA
IT
FR
DEW
JP
BE
PT
IE
AT
CHJP
FR
IT NL
IE
BE
SE
SE
NO
US
DE
CH
DEW
US AS
PL ES
ES
.25
SE
ES
TK
TK
TK
0
.3
.5
.7
c) Being a Housewife Fulfilling
.9
.1
.3
.5
d) Volunteer in Leadership Org.
Figure 1 - Women's Employment Rate Across Countries
19
UK
Women's Part-Time Work Rate
Women's Part-Time Work Rate
.4
NL
AS DEW
UK
NO NL
.3
JP
SE
.2
IT
DEW
DE
AT
PL
TK
IE
IT
ES
.1
SK CZ
PL
TK
BE
JP
SE
GR US
IS
CA FR
IS
CA
US DK
JP
FRBE
US
PT
ES
ES
TK
PT
HU
DK
DE
SK
CZ
HU
SE
NO
0
.5
FI
FI
FI
.7
.4
CH DEW
AS
.3
.2
FR
NO
AT
JP
SE
.2
BE
JP
IT GR
DK
JPFR
FR
BE
ES
.1
US
CA
IE
IE
FI
IT
PTDK
ESFI
PLTK
ES
PTTK
IS
DEW CA
US
US
DE
IS
AT
DE
PL HU
TK
SE
CZ
SK
CZ
PL
SK
HU
SE
FI NO
0
.6
.7
c) Competition is Good
FI FI
PL
NO
ITIE ES PT
DE
ES
CZ
ES
CZ SK
PT
HU
TK
PL
SK
PL
TK
HU
TK
FI SE
.7
.9
.4
UK
.3
.9
NL
CH
DEW
UK
CH
JP
NL
AT
AS
NO
SE
.2
.1
0
.8
AT
DK
.1
JP
GR
ISIT US
IS IE
US
US
JP
b) Good Pay Important in Job
Women's Part-Time Work Rate
Women's Part-Time Work Rate
NL
CA
FR DEW
CA
BE DE
.5
CH
AS
DEW
BE
SE
DK
.9
UK
UK
JP
SE
0
.4
.3
UK
NL
AT
NO
a) Working Mother Warm with Kids
NL
UK
NL
BE JP
IS
IT
DKDEW
IS
JP FR IE
FR
BE
DE
IE
AT
IT
PT
DK
ES
FI
DE
CZ
SK ES
CZ
PL
TK PL
PTHU
TK
PL HU
TK
SE FINO
.1
SE
GR
CA CA
FI
US
US
US
ES
SK
.3
.5
.7
d) Volunteer in Religious Org.
Figure 2 - Women's Incidence of Part-Time Work Across Countries
20
Table 4.
Determinants of
Women’s
Employment
Rates,
Incidence of
Part-Time Work
Across Countries:
Marginal Effects
from a Probit
Model
Dependent variable:
(Mean)
Women’s Education
(primary omitted):
Secondary
Upper Secondary
Tertiary
(1)
(2)
(3)
Women’s Employment Rates
0.649
0.416
(2.90)
0.476
(2.47)
0.590
(3.88)
Averages by country
Gender Role Attitudes:
Scarce jobs should go
to men first
Working mom warm
with kids
Being a housewife
fulfilling
Important in a Job:
Good pay
0.263
(3.33)
0.309
(2.53)
0.261
(2.25)
0.299
(1.88)
0.443
(3.37)
0.315
(1.62)
Women’s
-0.663
(-3.94)
0.118
(0.682)
-0.133
(-1.22)
(4)
(5)
(6)
Women’s Part-time Work
0.150
0.179
(2.21)
0.036
(0.26)
0.172
(2.00)
0.185
(2.99)
0.179
(1.56)
0.001
(0.01)
0.204
(2.30)
0.150
(1.31)
0.232
(2.26)
Men’s
Women’s
Men’s
-0.471
(-2.98)
0.070
(0.714)
-0.290
(-2.75)
-0.152
(-1.86)
-0.261
(-2.60)
0.468
(2.00)
0.809
(2.98)
-0.216
(-2.09)
0.192
(1.91)
0.591
(-1.74)
-0.316
(-1.54)
0.470
(2.88)
0.344
(2.21)
Good hours
Competition is OK
Volunteer in Organizations
with leader building
skills
charitable
-0.154
(-1.67)
religious and cultural
Time Trend
Adjusted-R square
No. observations
No. countries
-0.387
(-2.42)
-0.392
(-1.78)
0.355
(2.21)
0.001
(0.169)
-0.002
(-0.705)
0.003
(0.818)
0.003
(1.04)
-0.001
(-0.26)
0.012
(1.90)
0.313
45
24
0.809
45
24
0.799
45
24
0.052
45
24
0.220
45
24
0.150
45
24
21
.5
.5
JP
.4
TK
JP
CA
.3
BE
ESSE
.2
DK
FR BE
CH
UK
TK
AT
CH
DEW
ES
NL
US
PT
FI FR
US
DEW
US
CZ
PL
NL IE HU AT
IE
PL
FI
SE
IT
SE
FI
IS
IT ES NO
PL
DK NO
IS
CA
Gender Pay Gap
Gender Pay Gap
JP
JP
UK
TK
GR
SK
JP
TK
.4
JP
UK
.3
CA
UK
.2
DK
.1
TK
AT
DEW
ES NL
US
CA PT
FR
FI
BE
US
DEW
US
SE
TK ES CZ
PL
NL
HU SK
IE
FI
SE
IT
SE FI
IS
NO
IT
DK
ES NO
IS
FR
BE
0
.05
.1
.15
-.1
a) Gap: Scarce Jobs Should Go to Men
-.05
0
.05
.1
.15
b) Gap: Being a Housewife Fulfilling
.5
.5
JP
JP
JP
TK
.4
JP
TK
AT
.3
PT
UK
CA CH
DEW
NL
ES
CA US
UK
BE
DEW
TK
ES
NL
GR
FIFR US
PL
SEUS CZ
HU
IE SK
AT
IE
FI
PL
SE
DK
FISE IT
IS
IT
DK PLNO
ES
NO
BE FR
Gender Pay Gap
Gender Pay Gap
PL
.1
-.05
.2
GR
CH
JP
.4
JP
CA
.3
US
.2
SK
FI SE
NO
IS
PT
BE
UK
FR
ES
IE
IE
GR
IS
TK
AT
CH
CH
DEW
NL ES
UK
US
CA
US
DEW
FI SE
.1
TK
NL
IT
ES
IS FR
PL
SE
TK
HU
ITPL
FI
CZ
AT
DK
NO
PL
DK
BE
.1
-.1
0
.1
.2
c) Higher Education Gap
.3
-.15
-.1
-.05
0
.05
d) Gap: Religious Volunteering
Figure 3 - Gender Pay Gap Across Countries
22
Table 5. Determinants of the Gender Pay Gap across
Countries
Gender Gap in
Tertiary Education
Gender Role Attitudes:
Scarce jobs should go
to men first
Being a housewife
fulfilling
Volunteer in Organizations
religious and cultural
Time Trend
Mean
0.034
(1)
0.568
(4.65)
0.029
0.041
(2)
0.544
(4.55)
(3)
0.567
(5.44)
(4)
0.597
(6.42)
0.402
(3.17)
-0.313
(-1.93)
0.419
(3.16)
-0.423
(-2.43)
0.445
(3.48)
-0.861
(-2.52)
0.317
(1.99)
0.312
(1.95)
-0.027
-0.004
(-2.10)
-0.003
(-1.33)
-0.002
(-0.76)
-0.004
(-1.95)
0.070
(1.85)
0.518
45
24
0.552
45
24
0.575
45
24
0.596
45
24
Time Trend*Being
a housewife fulfilling
Adjusted R-square
No. obs
No. countries
23
Conclusion: Policy Implications


Promoting women’s access to higher education remains the
primary instrument to promote women’s equality in the labour
market.
Work values and gender differences in gender roles attitudes are
also found to have an important impact on women’s labour
market outcomes


Much research remains to be done on the processes involved in
changes in gender role attitudes
The explanatory power of attitudes such as “scare jobs should go
to men” directly show that discriminatory attitudes continue to
play a role in limiting women’s labour market outcomes.

Counter-acting these beliefs should address the risky-ness of
housewifery. There are many female heads of household, because of
widowhood, divorce or out-of-wedlock pregnancy, as entitled to scarce
jobs as men.
24
Conclusion: Policy Implications


Other gender role attitudes appear to be form in the youth and
may be strongly influenced by religious ideology, as argued by
others (Vella, 2004; Algan and Cahuc, 2004)
 The French policy there of “franciser” the training of priests
and mullahs, coming from Africa and North-Africa, is an
original response to this concern
Other attitudes “working mom warm with kids” may be influenced
by women’s later experience in family formation and market work

There the role of firms and the state in facilitating the work-life
balance of the family may be helpful (flexible work hours, affordable
day-care, etc)
25