Transcript Western Civilization HIS 102
Western Civilization HIS 102
Europe on the Threshold of Modernity, 1715-1789
There were several revolutions that took place during this time period, and not all involved violence and bloodshed The first was a revolution in thought – in politics, economics, social justice, and religion It was the notion that human beings, using rational thinking, could understand nature and be able to transform society
These ideas appealed to the public and also to some rulers This revolution in thought was called The Enlightenment and it was responsible for sparking other revolutions: economic, social, and political (American and French Revolutions) The Enlightenment took hold in the 18 th century
The Enlightenment
It was the result of Renaissance questioning, discoveries of the Scientific Revolution, and changes to agriculture It began in France Francois-Marie Arouet, better known as Voltaire, inaugurated the European Enlightenment when he published his Philosophical Letters Concerning the English Nation
The Enlightenment
Voltaire
This time was also called the Age of Reason The Enlightenment began at the end of the17th century by those who wished to spread the ideas from the Scientific Revolution These ideas gained popularity in the 18 th century Attempts were made to apply the scientific method to human behavior and social institutions – to look at it more objectively
Age of Reason/ Enlightenment
The intellectuals tried to apply this scientific reasoning to ethics, politics, economics, and to society in general The thinkers of the Enlightenment were for reform, change, and progress The movement was centered in Western Europe Southern and Eastern Europe were relatively un affected
It was initially limited to the elite of the urban aristocracy and the middle class The ideas of the Enlightenment came to dominate “civilized” thinking for the next 2 centuries
Intellectuals of the Enlightenment were known as Philosophes or thinkers They asked questions that required reasoning like “How do we discover truth?” The intellectuals were not usually formally trained They were more literary than scientifically trained
The Philosophes
Often they discussed, applied, and popularized the ideas of others rather than coming up with new ideas There were many who did write plays, histories, satires, novels, encyclopedia entries, or pamphlets Most attended discussion groups called
salons
The most famous was the salon of
Madame Geoffrin
Salon of Madame Geoffrin
Madame Geoffrin
The philosophes came up with the philosophy of the Enlightenment and popularized it in Western Europe and in the American colonies Voltaire was one of the leading philosophes ◦ Spent 2 years living in Britain after being released from a French jail for his ideas ◦ Wrote and spoke of the superiority of the British and their system of government
Voltaire said the British: ◦ practiced religious toleration ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ were not directly under the thumb of the clergy valued their people for what they did, not for who they were by birth government controlled and limited the power of the King highly respected scientists, poets, and philosophers Voltaire also attacked the French clergy, nobility, and monarch
Voltaire’s Philosophical Letters went through 5 editions the very first year It went through 10 editions in 10 years It was officially banned and burned which helped its popularity And it started the Enlightenment There were other important philosophes
Adam Smith (1723-1790) ◦ Scottish economist ◦ ◦ Wrote The Wealth of Nations Advocated a laissez-faire economy that meant no government intervention, leave it alone
Other Enlightenment Figures
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) ◦ Italian ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Legal reformer Said laws are to promote happiness in society Laws must be equitable for criminal and victim Punishment should act as a deterrent to crime, not revenge Advocated the end to torture to gain confessions, the end of capital punishment, and wanted rehabilitation of prisoners
Cesare Beccaria
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) ◦ German ◦ ◦ ◦ Philosopher Said, “Have the courage to use your own intelligence.” In other words, Question
David Hume ( 1711-1776) ◦ Scottish ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Had a love of moral philosophy Wrote Treatise of Human Nature in 1739 and An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding in 1748, his greatest work Said neither matter nor mind could be proven to exist with any certainty; only perceptions existed Said if human understanding was based on perception rather than reason, then there could be no certainty in the universe
Hume also attacked established religions saying, “If things aren’t certain, then the Christian religion can have no basis.” Religion grows out of hope and fear Hume was the most penetrating of all Enlightenment thinkers He was the greatest of all British philosophers
David Hume
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) ◦ French ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ One of the most original thinkers of his day Crusaded for a return to nature – the pure, the beautiful, the simple Became popular with many who were tired of the strict rules of etiquette and corrupt bureaucracies Queen of France liked his ideas
◦ Some subjects he dealt with were: free love and uninhibited emotion natural rearing and education of children let children do what they like and teach them practical knowledge
Politically, Rousseau is seen as the father
of the theory of modern democracy
Said people are all equal He said to restore lost freedoms, people join in an agreement – surrendering their individual liberty for the good of the whole He assumed the individual would be free by being part of the general will
Rousseau broke with the philosophes in 1750s because he felt people should stay closer to nature and placed more faith in emotion, feeling, and intuition than in reason Baron de Montesquieu, also called
Charles-Louis de Secondat
◦ Wrote Persian Letters in 1721 satirizing Parisian morals showing the absurdity of French customs
Baron de Montesquieu
Analyzed political systems Admired the English government and its Glorious Revolution Said England was the only state in Europe where liberty could be found Wrote how liberty could be achieved and despotism avoided
For Montesquieu, a successful government is one in which the powers are separated and have checks and balances He advocated law codes be reformed to mainly regulate crimes against persons and property He said the punishment should fit the crime He was for the abolition of torture
John Locke (1632-1704) ◦ Died in 1704, but his ideas had a great impact on the Enlightenment ◦ ◦ ◦ Said the mind was blank at birth Said governments have a powerful tool to mold and shape its citizens Said 2 things shape humans: Experiences: what they get through their senses School and institutions: teach ideas to citizens
Locke described good and evil as pleasure and pain: we do what is pleasurable and try to avoid pain He felt the natural rights of human beings are life, liberty, and property To safeguard rights, people gave some of their sovereignty to governments These governments were limited in power No government could violate an individual’s rights
If it does, the people have the right to
overthrow it
This thinking greatly influenced the American and French Revolutions These ideas are reflected in the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas Jefferson who had spent time in Paris during the Enlightenment and in the American Constitution
John Locke
The Encyclopedia was a 17-volume compendium of knowledge, criticism, and philosophy from the Enlightenment Edited by Denis Diderot A collaborative effort of philosophes Summary of their thoughts and philosophy It expressed the critical, rational, and empirical views It showed the practicality of science and importance of knowledge in general
Encyclopedia
Main Message: Almost anything could be discovered, understood, or clarified through reason It was a threat to the status quo It was censored and its publication halted The first volume was a big hit and sold a lot of copies
Philosophes attacked: ◦ war and military values ◦ ◦ traditional aristocracies social distinctions Philosophes wanted freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and science applied to economics
By the end of the 1770s, philosophes were quarreling amongst themselves Their debates were about how far Enlightenment concepts could be taken Some philosophes began to specialize and laid the foundations for our present-day social sciences: criminology, penology, & economics, for example
Paris was the heart of the Enlightenment Gatherings were held in salons like that of Madame Geoffrin They were attended by wealthy Parisians, aristocratic women, and those who wished to debate the new ideas The women who attended wrote to their friends in France or other countries about what they heard
The Social Context
These women played an important role in the spread of these ideas For example, Madame Geoffrin corresponded with Catherine the Great of Russia During the Enlightenment, there was an increase in literacy rates and access to books This led to a more informed public
Reading rooms cropped up: for a small fee, one could enter and read the latest news or novels In France they were called salle de lecture These reading rooms were the forerunner to lending libraries Ideas from the Enlightenment enticed others to read, and this interest led to other areas of study: art, music
Theatres opened to the public Once a year there was an exhibition of art in one section of the Louvre Palace Art auctions began as did the art critic - a new role for some to fulfill Some art remained religious Other art explored emotions (Baroque style or the cult of sensibility) Emotion was also looked at in literature
Art, Literature, Theatre
Novels explored social problems and human relationships ◦ Example: Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe Published in 1717
Novels
There was a revival in classical architecture This was especially true in the United States at the end of the 18 th century Why?
There was a classical movement in music, as well – emotional music ◦ Franz Josef Haydn ◦ Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Wrote symphonies and sonatas
Music and Architecture
Haydn and Mozart
Those of the Enlightenment hoped for education and social reform that would lead to change and progress Some rulers were affected by the Enlightenment, to varying degrees ◦ Wanted to govern more effectively ◦ Tried to reform laws, the economy, and government Many were beginning to see themselves as servants of their states. That was a big change for traditional elites
European States in the Age of Enlightenment
Autocratic Educated elites For scientific research Cultured court life Intellectual curiosity International language Very Catholic with papal influence Problems facing France in 18 th a huge debt from foreign wars and the strength of the privileged elite century were
France
Parlements (courts) could object to royal policy Public opinion wished to remove privilege Louis XV, grandson of Louis XIV, took the throne in 1715 at the age of 5 ◦ essentially lazy ◦ debt made him dissolve the parlement and create his own courts ◦ ◦ died in 1774 his grandson, 20-year old Louis XVI, took over
France
Louis XV and Louis XVI
Louis XVI restored the parlement and called the Estates General in 1788 because of money problems The Estates General had last been called in 1614 There was mistrust of the Crown There was no significant change in France until the outbreak of revolution
France
After William ( d. 1702) and Mary died (d. 1694) , Mary’s sister Anne took the throne of England (r. 1702-1714) The crown then passed to relatives in Hanover, Germany because Anne’s children did not outlive her George I of Hanover took the throne (1714-1727) George II followed (r. 1727-1760) George III (r. 1760-1820)
England
Queen Anne
George I did not speak English He was considered mediocre His claim to the throne was challenged by the descendents of James II George remained George II’s claim to the throne was challenged by Bonnie Prince Charlie (James II’s family) in 1745 -- failed effort
George I and George II
George I, George II, & George III
The Act of Settlement passed in Parliament years earlier had settled Anne’s claim to the throne It said only Protestants could sit on the throne of England There seemed to be more cooperation between Parliament and the monarchy in the 18 th century
Protestants Only
Parliament was becoming stronger and more sophisticated There were 2 political parties ◦
Tories
begun during the time of Charles II staunch Anglicans favored isolationism in foreign affairs honored King’s authority represented interests of gentry and traditional landholding concerns
Parliament
◦
Whigs
had resisted Charles II’s pro-French, pro-Catholic policies favored an aggressive foreign policy, especially against France represented the interests of the great aristocrats, wealthy merchants, and wealthy gentry were dominant in government in the 18 th up to 1770 century
Prime Minister
◦ Robert Walpole established this position ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ chose to keep peace abroad disengaged King George I King’s Privy Council became Cabinet Prime Minister headed Cabinet Prime Minister and cabinet are from dominant party in Parliament
Parliament was not representative of the British people ◦ Positions held by those of traditional, landed wealth ◦ ◦ 1760s reform pressed to bring in Professionals like doctors, lawyers, and merchants Many of the unrepresented felt a kinship with the Americans ◦ Most in Parliament did not wish to give civil rights to Catholics
Parliament
Some European rulers learned from the Enlightenment and tried to make some reforms ◦
Frederick, Crown Prince of Denmark
1784, he began to govern for mentally ill father Applied Enlightenment principles to Denmark’s economic problems ◦ Encouraged free trade ◦ Tried to improve lives of peasants by allowing them to own land; productivity increased
Enlightened Despots
◦ Gustav III of Sweden (r. 1772-1796) Took crown in a coup in 1772 and overturned Diet Made reforms to government ◦ Torture abolished ◦ ◦ Trade restrictions eased Reformed law
◦ Frederick II of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) Also known as Frederick the Great ◦ Made military reforms ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Tried to modernize agriculture and improve lives of peasants Abolished serfdom Tried to stimulate economy Tried to codify law He said that a ruler has a moral obligation to work for the betterment of the state He saw himself as the “first servant” or steward of the state
◦ Maria Theresa of Austria (r. 1740-1780) Streamlined and centralized the administration, finances, and defense Set new tax laws Limited exploitation of serfs Made primary school universal and compulsory – not fully implemented by time of her death
◦ Joseph II of Austria (r. 1780 -1790) Succeeded his mother, Maria Theresa Added freedom of the press, freedom of religion , and the abolition of serfdom to a growing list of reforms
◦ Leopold II of Austria (r. 1790-1792) Enforced the reforms of his mother, Maria Theresa and his Brother, Joseph II
◦ Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796) Empress of Russia She was Sophia of Germany until she married Peter III in 1745 Peter III was brutal and quite possibly mentally ill Catherine engineered a coup which killed her husband She then reigned for 30+ years She extended Russian territory She secularized church lands She set up publishing houses and allowed for a press She made legal reforms: abolished torture and capital punishment
Catherine had an educational system set up for both the sons and daughters of the elite Not much was done for the serfs and serf rebellions continued
Warfare continued and new states arose to dominate European politics in the 18 th century ◦ England, France, and Austria in the West ◦ Prussia and Russia in the East They had effective armies and overseas trade, territories, or colonies Armies took volunteers but also drafted citizens Other were placed in army by courts: criminals, the poor
Widening Scope of Commerce and Warfare
The treatment of soldiers was rough because many were criminals There were new types of guns which made war more brutal and easier to win for those with these new weapons Warfare was becoming more professional In the fight for the Baltic Coast: Sweden vs. Russia with Russia winning
In mid-18 th century, Prussia was equal to Austria after Maria Theresa was placed on the throne of Austria In the Seven Years’ War, Frederick the Great was in an alliance with England who fought the French in alliance with Maria Theresa (gets complicated)
Slave Trade, begun by the Portuguese who took slaves from West Africa to the New World Other European nations participated This involved the Triangular Trade Route
Map, p. 627
In the New World the French in Canada traded in furs while the English of the American colonies dealt in tobacco, rice, and indigo
Trade
Triangular Slave Trade
Triangular Slave Trade
The British won out in North America over the French, Swedes, Dutch, and Spanish
The Urban Elites or Bourgeoisie ◦ As commerce and trade expanded, so did the bourgeoisie (middle class) ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ Middle class increased in numbers and in power There economic activities centered on trade, exchange, and service The bourgeoisie was stronger in northern and western Europe than in the south and east Bourgeoisie was 15% of British population but less than 2% of those in Hungary and Russia
Back to Europe
The upper levels were involved in an ever expanding international trade They made great profits They seemed to merge with the nobility because of their great wealth The lower levels – the petit bourgeoisie- were the shopkeepers, craftsmen, and industrial employees and seemed to merge with the artisans and laborers
Other members of the bourgeoisie were the professionals in medicine, law, education, and government bureaucracy The wish of many of these was to be seen as noble However, they were scorned by the aristocracy and envied by the lower class
Eager to imitate the nobility So became actively involved in the “culture of consumption, tourism, and commercialized leisure” They paid for their entertainment : patronized theatres, concert halls, and resort towns like Bath and Brighton in England Socializing was central to their culture: salons or academies
Charm of the Bourgeoisie
Tearooms, coffee houses, and clubs became the preserves of men who would sit, talk, and read together There were magazines and not all for men; ladies had theirs ◦ The Ladies’ Diary (1704-1787) gave advise taught manners emphasized morality, sexual fidelity, and obedience Women were generally allowed to participate in intellectual endeavors
Domesticity transformed the values of noblemen and the bourgeoisie in the 18 th century As always, economics held the family together ◦ All pitching in to make ends meet ◦ Or father as breadwinner with mother taking care of children and the home
Family Life
Something new had been added:
emotion
Romance and sexual attraction had become important factors in choosing a marriage partner The role of parents and matchmaking had diminished Compatibility was the central goal of married life
Desire for privacy followed; a need for doors and hallways Family size was being limited Attitudes towards children changed as well – more closeness allowed Childhood was being seen as a distinct stage of life that shaped the character of the individual Education became more important
Books and games were now designed specifically for children There were shops designed just for children The affluent could afford such things Not so for the poor; the new cult of domesticity was out of their reach
The 18 masses th century saw an increase in both economic opportunity and economic problems for the lower classes, the Some benefited from the spread of literacy and new jobs in trade Others suffered from the misery associated with the explosion of population, poverty, and landlessness that marked the period
The Masses
There was a steady growth in population beginning in the 1740s And there was no crisis like war, famine, or disease to lower it No checks on population as outlined by clergyman Thomas Malthus with his
preventive and positive checks
Population rose from 120 million in 1700 to 180 million a century later – in Europe
Fertility increased ◦ Earlier marriages by women ◦ ◦ Greater dependence on wet nurses Increased sexual activity outside of marriage Death rates decreased because there were fewer wars and epidemics Increased fertility and decreased death rates led to an increase in population
Even with an increase in size of population, famine was not prevalent in the 18 th century New crops such as maize and potatoes added to the European diet There was slow starvation for some Improvements in agriculture helped European farmers produce more food ◦ 3-field crop rotation system ◦ ◦ Planting of clover for nutrients for the soil Planting of winter crops
Food
These changes were first adopted in Britain and Holland and more than doubled their yields Others couldn’t participate because of the costs In Eastern Europe, most grains came from the cultivation of new lands rather than from new technologies They just kept taking down trees to make farmland
Specialization of crops began Surplus sent to market Improvements made in the exchange of goods: better transportation and communication There was also a moderate warming trend in Europe’s climate which helped agriculture
The most basic social fact of the 18 th century in Europe was an explosion of poverty, concentrated in urban areas Chronically poor comprised 10% - 15% of the population or about 20 million Another 40% of the population either had no land or steady employment Population growth caused the cost of living to go up because of scarce goods and wages to fall
The Poor
In the late 18 th ◦ ◦ ◦ century France: cost of living rose 60% and wages rose only by 25% Spain: cost of living rose 100% and wages rose 20% Britain: was almost even Landholdings shrank in size as land became more valuable and taxes rose Fewer people could make a living off the land
People had to move to find jobs and work for wages Males were seen as more valuable than women There was female infanticide People moved from country to city looking for work Many worked in factories Some left their countries and went to America
So many had moved to cities that poverty seemed extreme there Some sought out charity but there wasn’t enough to go around Many gave up children to foundling hospitals In Paris, 15% of children survived their first year of life
Distinctions were made among the poor by officials: ◦ The deserving poor were those physically or mentally incapacitated ◦ The unworthy poor were those impoverished by social and economic circumstances Institutions like hospitals, work houses, and prisons were established to discipline and punish the rising numbers of rootless people flooding the cities
◦ ◦ ◦ Even though times looked bleak at the end of the 18 th century, many agreed times were better than before Communities offered some outlets to alleviate the distress of its people ◦ Festivals Village fairs Religious holidays Books available for those who could read
Popular Culture
There were sporting events: soccer matches There were blood sports: dog and cat fights, bearbaiting, bull running, bull fights, fox hunting There were taverns and public houses ◦ Increased use of alcohol ◦ Increase in gambling
Conclusion: ◦ Although the 18 th century saw new opportunities for social mobility, a class system still governed Europe ◦ The dividing line between paupers, the bourgeoisie, and the landed elite became sharper even with the Enlightenment challenging the old ways, both socially and politically