Transcript English Grammar - Near East University

ETHNOGRAPHY
26-12-2012
Monday
Time 5pm-8pm
Near East University
Prepared by :
Hazhar & Karwan
Supervised by :
Dr. Çise Çavuşoğlu
Content
Defining Ethnography
A Brief History
Where to look for possible topics
Ethnography in the fieldwork
 Ethnography in the field: Collecting data
1- Guide to collecting data and taking notes
2- Participant - Observation
3- Interviews
4- Analyzing
5- Writing ethnography
 The ethnographic tense
 Advantages of Ethnography
 Disadvantages of Ethnography
 Conclusion
 References
Defining Ethnography
Ethnography is a research strategy that allows researchers to
explore and examine the cultures and societies that are a
fundamental part of the human experience. (Julian M. Murchison,
2010)
Ethnography is the study of cultures through close observation,
reading, and interpretation. (Atkinson, P. & Hammersley, M., 2007)
Ethnography is learning from people, finding out what makes them
tick, expressing interest in what is important to them, and letting
them teach you to see the world from their point of view.
(www.usography.com )
Ethnography is the in-depth study of naturally occurring behavior within a culture or
social group. It seeks to understand
the relationship between culture and behavior; with culture referring to the beliefs,
values, and attitudes of a specific group
of people
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_ethnography#ixzz2Bl09wRNz
Ethnography is observing behaviour in natural settings
Usography (www.usography.com )
A Brief History
Ethnography arose at the end of the nineteenth century and the
beginning of the twentieth century in the condition of a particular
set of historical circumstances that influenced early ethnographic
work. These circumstances included European imperialism,
American expansionist tendencies, and dominant understandings
of race, ethnicity, and gender that usually placed white males in
positions of advantage and power and placed others in
marginalized or colonized positions of oppression and
(Julian M. Murchison, 2010)
subordination.
Where to Look for Possible Topics
As the ethnographer, you can begin brainstorming about possible
research topics by: Paying close attention to the human activities going on around
you
 There may be a particular event or idea that you have often
wondered about but never found the opportunity to learn about
or investigate.
 You may have observed or been part of a social or cultural
event that seems unique, fascinating, problematic, or
inexplicable
 Maybe you know of something that has not been studied and
needs to be studied — a research gap.
 The ethnographer may want to contribute to a larger
understanding of a particular social or cultural model or
contribute to the resolution of a social problem.
 Even people who have no knowledge of ethnography they
may remind you of something you have forgotten or draw
your attention to
 Newspapers , internet and social events calendars can be
very helpful resources to look for this type of information
Ethnography in the fieldwork
Ethnographers collect data through:


Fieldwork in ethnography means that the researcher gathers data in
the setting where the participants are located and where their shared
patterns can be studied
Spending time at participants’ sites where they live, work, or play
The ethnographer goes to the “field,” lives with or frequently visits the people being studied and
slowly learns the cultural ways in which the group behaves or thinks
This data collection involves the following:



Emic Data is information supplied by participants in a study.
Emic often refers to first-order concepts, such as local language,
concepts, and ways of expression used by members in a
cultural-sharing group (Schwandt, 2001)
Etic Data is information representing the ethnographers'
interpretation of the participants’ perspectives. Etic typically
refers to second-order concepts, such as the language used by
the social scientist or educator, to refer to the same phenomena
mentioned by the participants (Schwandt, 2001)
Negotiation Data consists of information that the participant
and the researcher agree to use in a study. (Schwandt, 2001)
Ethnography Process
Ethnography in the field: collecting data
1- Guide to collecting data and taking notes
 The information you have to work with in terms of notes , the
more likely your project is to be successful.
 As ethnographer, you should begin taking field notes as soon as
you can .
A- The fleeting nature of ethnographic data :
Ethnographic data is fleeting, and the ethnographer’s job is to record
before it disappears . There are mechanisms , like cameras , videos,
and audio recording ,that ethnographers can use record and preserve
these elements for future study.
B- Should I write down immediately ?
 The most important thing is to make notes and to create the
ethnographic record as soon as possible.
 The longer the period of time that passes between an event and
the note taking about it ,the more likely that some elements will
be misremembered
C- The importance of detail in ethnographic record
 If you record detail , you have more information with which to
work when you return to your notes
 Details are the components of society and culture in action
 You will be able to develop informative pictures of the typical
that can be the foundation of insightful analysis
 It will help the story complete
D- Writing notes versus using recorders
 Audio recorders, cameras, and, increasingly, video cameras.
These instruments are invaluable aids in the data collection
process
 The ethnographer (and others) can revisit subsequently
 These audio recorders do not record any accompanying
information about body language, movement, physical
interaction
 May distort the picture of society and culture in action.
 Make sure to use them in concert with written notes in order to
produce the most complete ethnographic record
E- The prospects of transcription
 The sooner after an interview you can transcribe it, the better
 You should allow five to ten hours to transcribe each hour of
recorded interview
 Allows you to generate a precise record of the words and the
overall interaction
 It can also help you develop new interview questions or new
approaches as you continue your research
F- What do I need to write down
One of the hardest decisions for the ethnographer involves
distinguishing important information from unrelated information.
 You can record many different things in the course of fieldwork.
 You want to be open to discovery and recording information
that you did not originally perceive as important.
 Information and detail are important both for specific analysis
and in constructing an overall ethnographic picture.
G - The ethics of collecting information
 Fact: the ethnographer’s responsibility is to faithfully
document the social and cultural worlds that we inhabit. You
should not lose sight of the fact that your “ facts ” or
information are produced through human interaction.
 Consent the participants: Ethnographers have had their records
been called to testify in court cases based on their research.
 Public events are exceptional: Events like a politician ’ s
public speech on a national holiday or a parade can be
documented by the ethnographer without concerns about
obtaining consent from the primary actors.
 Pseudonyms and codes are one way to provide some protection
2- Participant - Observation
Participant - observation is an essential component of ethnographic
research. Successful and effective participant - observation requires
practice and associated set of skills that allows the ethnographer to
make the most out of the unique position of the participant observer .
A- The apparent paradox: participation and observation
A skeptic will argue that ethnography as a research strategy cannot
reasonably combine participation and observation in a single
method because the two activities are antithetical.
Observation:
 The researcher should be a detached observer
 Ethnographer almost necessarily has to become involved on a
personal level to one degree or another
 Personal experience and social or cultural understanding can
be very powerful for the ethnographer
 Abandon their practiced, objective stances
participant:
 Perform objective analysis of the events in which they have
participated
 Passionate emotions and sensory experiences can make
participatory experiences primary.
 Every participant in an event has a slightly different experience
 Ethnographer’s goal is to acquire and to understand the insider’s,
or emic perspective
 Participation is a way of obtaining the sort of experiential and
organized knowledge that ethnographers find essential to their
projects.
B- Balancing participation and observation
A good ethnographer wants to maintain a balance of the two. The
first step is balancing participation and observation to make sure
that you are doing both.
 If an event is open to the public and everyone will find it easy to
take up the role of participant
 If participation is enjoyable — including good food or music, a
sense of friendship , or a hospitable environment — you may also
be prepared to participation
 If it is difficult to gain permission to participate actively or
involvement carries the prospect of some unpleasant experiences,
embarrassment, or unwanted attention , you may be more reluctant
to become a participant
C- The importance of time
Three dimensions of time are important in terms of fieldwork:
 Total length of time spent in the field
 Breadth of time spent in the field
 Number of times spent in the field.
The more time you spend doing participant - observation, the
more quality information you are going to be able to collect
D- Informants as teachers and guides
 Choosing Informants
Working with multiple informants is a good idea, you should be
careful to ensure that social structures do not necessary influence
your research and limit your ability to access important perspectives
 A person in a position of authority
 Gender – segregated
 Gerontocracy society
 depend on informant:
Without the informant, the researcher may not know how to behave
or respond in a particular situation
 Ethnographers frequently rely on key informants ,working with
one or a few key informants can be very productive because the
close relationship allows you to glean deeper levels of information.
E- Avoiding deception and misinformation
 You should be prepared to provide a clear and brief explanation
of your project
 In some situations, you will have to go through specific
channels in order to have your research approved
 you can eliminate a potential source of miscommunication
 strategy of omission can be important if you think that will act
differently feelings
3- Interviews
Interviews as a method offer you the chance to ask direct questions
and gain access to personal thoughts and experiences.
A- Starting with informal interviews and conversations
 You can use questions to get information from more informal
chances for conversation
 Directing the conversation and talking about topics of interest to
them, you can gain a good picture of what is important to them
 Informal conversations allow you more readily to fill the role of
participant - observer
 If you begin with informal interviews ,you will be able to ask
more informed and pointed questions
B- A good interviewer is a good listener
listening is the essential skill that allows that development into a
more effective interviewer
 Let yourself to learn from the others
 You have to be willing to give up some control of the research
process so that your informants can help guide the research
 You should always be ready to adapt to circumstances as they
present themselves
C- How to record interview data
Recording interview data can be a complicated task. Using an
audio (or video) recorder can make the task somewhat easier you
have to record in detail:
Two principal types of information that interviews can yield
1-Discrete , pieces of information (like age, religious affiliation,
and birthplace) and narrative explanations or accounts . These
discrete pieces of information can be important pieces of the
ethnographic puzzle
2-Interviews can also produce information about experience and
perception, opinions, thought processes, symbols, and logical or
cultural connections, linguistic practices, and social relationship
D- How to start an interview
You should try to start the interview by asking “ easy ” questions
 Asking questions about personal histories and personal
experiences can be an effective way to begin an interview you
can plan to begin with impersonal or abstract questions that the
interviewee may be more comfortable answering
 Personal questions are good because the interviewee usually is
the expert on these matters
E- Good versus bad interview questions
 Ask more open - ended questions than closed - ended questions
 Avoid questions that suggest an answer or imply that you already
know the answer.
 It is okay to ask follow - up questions and to double – check
answers .
 Hypothetical questions can be good interview questions“ What
if . . . ? ”
 Avoid “ simple ” questions .
F- Questions that the ethnographer shouldn’t ask
The interviewee always has the right to refuse to answer a
question or stop an interview.
 The research goals should prepare the interviewee for the types
of questions
 Type of question is likely to surprise her and even make her
uncomfortable or suspicious
 You should not ask questions designed to elicit private
information unless the questions are directly related to your
research
 It may help for you to clarify that you intend to use
pseudonyms or take other steps to protect confidentiality
 You may want to try asking indirect questions, which offer
interviewees the opportunity to share personal information
4- Analyzing
 Helps you organize your thoughts
 Efficient use of record are good reasons to analyze and avoid
jumble mess.
1- Sorting and coding data
The next step involves organizing, sorting, and analyzing the
ethnographic record you have collected with an eye toward big picture analysis and the final ethnographic project. In essence, you
are beginning the process of dividing your notes down to a core
that can become the basis for an effective and informative
ethnography.
A- WRITING FROM YOUR RESEARCH DATA
As you prepare to build a comprehensive analytical framework,
you need to make sure you return to that record
 There may be words, ideas, or event that have faded from your
memory you may come to see the significance anew
 You have built a body of information located in the
ethnographic record
 Make you sure the knowledge gained is quite true.
B- Identifying key themes and questions
At this point, as the end of your field research approaches, you
need to revisit the questions and themes you identified
previously.
 Whether those questions and themes constitute a good
representation of the findings and insights that your research
has produced.
 You can revisit the issue of whether these questions still
reflect your primary research interests or if your field
experiences have taken you in a different direction
 You can consider whether the information that you have
collected allows you to answer specific research questions
particularly well.
 You can evaluate these themes’ usefulness as a way of
organizing and analyzing the ethnographic record
 Your goal should be to produce a final list of themes that you
can use to organize, search, and analyze the ethnographic
record you have collected
 The key themes can become topics, sections, or even chapters
C- Coding and sorting the ethnographic record
Once you have developed a list of themes based on your
fieldwork, you can use this list to code the ethnographic record.
This process of coding involves identifying each place in the
ethnographic record that is related to a particular theme.
Two main types of coding
 Marginal notes: you are taking notes on your notes, and after
you are finished coding, you can flip through your notes to find
relevant sections related to each theme.
 Colourful tabs : you may choose to code using coloured tabs,
with each colour reflecting a primary theme. When you have
finished coding your notes, your notes will be a rainbow that
represents a categorized way of reading the ethnographic
record.`
The benefits of coding:
 You are combining tasks of reading and writing
 You are performing a careful reading(multiple reading)of
ethnographic record.
 You are revisiting the record you created through writing
and adding another layer of writing (in code) that structures
or organizes the record along different axes.
 Thorough coding will enable powerful processes of sorting
and lead to informative and insightful ethnographic analysis
Advantages of Ethnography
 Many people do not act like what they say, Ethnography analyzes cultures or groups
tremendously deep, and gets reliable results.
Disadvantages of Ethnography
 Being part of only one group.
 Translating field notes into data analysis is extremely hard.
 Ethnography study costs too much
The ethnographic tense
 Present : You may want to remind the reader that the
content of the ethnography is directly related to the
current lives of the readers, and the present tense may be
the most effective way to create that sort of immediate
connection between the reader and the subject matter
 Past : The past tense may be particularly appropriate if
you want to include consideration of social and cultural
change in your ethnography.
5- Writing ethnography
The disciplines of reading and writing
Writing ethnography is a key part of the entire research process. It
is closely related to analysis. There are always many ways we
could write about the social phenomena with which our research is
concerned.
Styles of ethnographic writing
 Thematic and chronological arrangements
The sort of analysis yields a series of analytic themes, of greater
and lesser generality.
 Emic categories
The organizing themes of the ethnographic account will, be based
on folk models
 Etic categories
Reflects the analyst’s social science ideas .The text’s major parts
such as chapters or substantial sections can be identified in terms
of such key etic concepts
Conclusion
Ethnographic research allows you to get “up close and
personal” with cultures. It places researchers at the heart of the
investigations, often allowing them to participate in the exact
culture they study. Such an active role gives writers valuable
insights into their subject, which usually cannot be achieved simply
by studying books, journal articles, and websites.
References
Antola, H. (1994). The Ethnography of Empowerment: The
Transformative Power of Classroom Interaction. Washington,
D.C. London: The Falmer Press.
Atkinson, P. & Hammersley, M. (2007). Ethnography : Principles in
practice ( 3rd Ed ). London and New York: Routledge Madison
Avenue, New York: NY.
Emerson, Robert M., Rachel I. Fretz, and Linda L. Shaw. (1995).
Writing Ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Julian M. Murchison. (2010). Ethnography Essentials : Designing,
Conducting, and Presenting Your Research. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.
Schwandt, T. A. (2001). Dictionary of qualitative research (2n ed.).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_ethnography#ixzz2Bl09wRNz
Usography (www.usography.com )