Transcript The Transformation of Rural Bihar

The transformation of rural Bihar:
Evidence from longitudinal research
Results from a research project undertaken by
Amrita Datta, Sunil K. Mishra, Gerry Rodgers,
Janine Rodgers and Alakh N. Sharma
Institute for Human Development, New Delhi
This presentation is based on one given by Gerry Rodgers at the School
of Oriental and African Studies, London University, October 30, 2014
Contents
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Bihar within India
Surveys in Bihar since the 1970s
Agrarian relations and change since the early
1980s
The trajectories of households since 1999
Alternative development paths, based on
story of two villages
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Publications
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Gerry Rodgers, Amrita Datta, Janine Rodgers Sunil K. Mishra and Alakh N. Sharma, The challenge of rural
development in Bihar (Manak Publications, Delhi, 2013).
Amrita Datta and Preet Rustagi, Status of women in Bihar: Exploring Transformations in Work and Gender
Relations (Institute for Human Development, New Delhi, 2012)
Three articles in the volume edited by Himanshu, Praveen Jha and Gerry Rodgers, Longitudinal research in
village India: Methods and findings (OUP, Delhi, forthcoming):
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Gerry Rodgers, Sunil K. Mishra and Alakh Sharma: “Four decades of village studies and surveys in
Bihar”
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Janine Rodgers: “Changes in Rural Labour Markets in Bihar: 1981-2011”
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Amrita Datta: “Migration from Rural Bihar: Insights from a longitudinal study (1981-2011)”
Amrita Datta, Gerry Rodgers, Janine Rodgers and B.K.N. Singh: “Contrasts in development in Bihar: A tale
of two villages”, Journal of Development Studies, 2014
Gerry Rodgers and Janine Rodgers: “Inclusive Development? Migration, governance and social change in
rural Bihar”, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XLVI, No. 23, June 4 2011
Institute for Human Development working papers
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WP 05/2012 Amrita Datta, Gerry Rodgers, Janine Rodgers and B.K.N. Singh: “A Tale of Two Villages:
Contrasts in Development in Bihar”
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WP 04/2012 Janine Rodgers: “Labour Force Participation in Rural Bihar: A Thirty-year Perspective
based on Village Surveys”
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WP 01/2012 Gerry Rodgers: “Understanding Unequal Economic and Social Outcomes in Rural Bihar:
The Importance of Caste, Class and Landholding”
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Per capita NSDP, Bihar as proportion of India
4
Bihar, selected indicators as % of all-India,
2004-05 & 2009-10
Urbanization: 11.2 %
Poverty: 34.1%
Agriculture, forestry, fishing: 22.3% of NSDP
Female literacy: 53.3%
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Main primary data sources
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A.N.Sinha Institute of Social Studies survey of 36 villages (12 in
depth), 1981 to 1983
 Representative of rural Bihar
1998-2000, Institute for Human Development resurvey
 Same villages, new households
2009-2012 IHD resurveys
 Same households as 1998-2000
1970-2012 Village studies in selected villages.
Main types of data
 Conventional household survey data
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500 to 3000 households depending on sample
Household panel data (1998-99 to 2009/10/11)
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941 households in 2009
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Agrarian structure and change, 1981-2009
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Class structure in 1981 – semi-feudal model based on
the generation of surplus value in agriculture and its
appropriation through tied labour, indebtedness, tenancy
Close relationship between caste and class
Between 1981 and 2009 this model changed radically
Agriculture has grown and occupations have diversified
But some of the social and economic structures
underpinning inequality have remained
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Class distribution of households, 1981 and 2009
1981
2009
4
<1
Agricultural labour landless, casual
23
35
Agricultural labour cultivating, tied
12
1
Agricultural labour cultivating, casual
14
17
6
5
12
5
21
9
6
100
17
1
13
100
Agricultural labour landless, tied
Poor-middle peasants
Middle peasants
Big peasants
Landlords
No agricultural work
All
8
Caste and community by class, 1981-2009
100%
80%
Muslim
60%
SC/ST
Other Backward I
Other Backward II
Kurmi, Koeri, Yadav
40%
Upper Caste
20%
Agricultural
labour
Poor and middle
peasants
Big peasant and
landlord
2009
1998
1981
2009
1998
1981
2009
1998
1980
2009
1998
1981
0%
Non-ag. Empt
(self/w age)
9
Class transitions: % distribution of households
by class in 2009-10, for each class in 1998-99
Class in 1998-99
Ag labour
cultivating
Small
and
middle
peasant
Large
peasant
and
landlord
No
Agricultural work
Total
Ag lab cultivating
68
14
36
36
7
19
5
5
27
14
28
17
Small and middle
peasant
10
19
35
18
15
18
Large peasant
and landlord
1
6
24
53
7
22
No agricultural
work
8
4
16
20
39
16
100
100
100
100
100
100
21
23
9
33
13
Class in 2009-10
Ag
labour
landless
Ag lab landless
% distribution
98-99
10
Land transitions: % distribution of households
by land ownership class in 2009-10 for each land
ownership class in 1998-99
Land ownership category in 1998-99
Land ownership
category
in 2009-10
Landless
0.01 to
0.99
acres
1.00 to
2.49
acres
2.50 to
4.99
acres
5.0 to
9.99
acres
10 acres
or more
Landless
77
28
9
5
3
0
0.01 to 0.99 acres
17
3
2
56
11
4
35
43
10
22
38
31
22
30
19
6
6
11
0.5
0.2
1
0.5
2
0.5
4
0
20
6
22
56
100
100
100
100
100
100 11
1.00 to 2.49 acres
2.50 to 4.99 acres
5.0 to 9.99 acres
10 acres or more
Total
Agricultural production
• Agricultural productivity has risen substantially
since 1981
• Average yield of paddy doubled from 1981 to 2009
• Wheat up by 90%
• But still far below potential
• Cereals still account for three quarters of output
• Technology adoption determined largely by land
holding and caste, not by class; in 1981 class was
as important
• This tends to concentrate productivity gains on
larger farmers
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% of households where at least one member had
a principal occupation in non-agricultural work
Agricultural labour landless, tied
Agricultural labour landless, casual
Agricultural labour cultivating, tied
Agricultural labour cultivating, casual
Poor-middle peasants
Middle peasants
Big peasants
Landlords
No agricultural work
All
1981
2009
5
15
7
14
43
26
24
43
71
24
80
63
91
56
81
55
60
82
93
68
13
Percentage of households with at least one
member migrating for work, by class, 1981-2009
Class
Agric. Labour Landless
1981
18
1999
30
2009*
62
Agric. Labour Cultivating
14
57
Small Peasant
22
28
56
Middle Peasant
14
28
55
Large Peasant
19
31
46
Landlord/supervision
22
56
59
No agricultural work
15
42
62
Total
18
33
57
*includes households with migrants for education purposes
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Gender differentiation
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Occupational trends are different for men and women.
Men: occupational diversification, often outside village
Women: <4% with economic activity outside agriculture
in 2009
But labour force participation of women increased by
almost 20% between 1981 and 2009
Structure of women’s employment status different from
men’s
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16
Change in household incomes and
assets from 1998-99 to 2009-11
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Substantial rise in both incomes and assets
Overall Gini coefficient of household income has risen
from 0.446 in 1999 to 0.494 in 2011
We look at the influence of class, land, migration and
education (as of 1998-99) on subsequent trajectory
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Income 1999-2011 (at 1999 prices)
by class in 1999
100000
90000
80000
Household
income with
remittances
1999
70000
Rs.
60000
50000
40000
Household
income with
remittances
2011
30000
20000
10000
0
A g labo ur
Small-mid
peasants
B ig
peasants/
landlo rds
No nagricultural
To tal
Household
income with
migrants'
income 2011
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Income 1999-2011 (at 1999 prices)
by class and migrant status in 1999
140000
120000
Household
income w ith
remittances
1999
80000
Household
income w ith
remittances
2011
60000
40000
20000
Agricultural
labour
Small &
middle
peasants
Large
peasants &
landlords
Migrant
Nonmigrant
Migrant
Nonmigrant
Migrant
Nonmigrant
Migrant
0
Nonmigrant
Rs.
100000
Household
income w ith
migrants'
income 2011
Nonagricultural
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Income 1999-2011
by highest education level in 1999
Household
income with
remittances
1999
140000
120000
Rs.
100000
Household
income with
remittances
2011
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Primary or
less
Secondary
or vocational
Higher
Total
Household
income with
migrants'
income 2011
20
21
Ratio of real income 2011:1999
by land ownership
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Landless
0.01 to
0.99
acres
1.00 to
2.49
acres
2.50 to
4.99
acres
5.0 to
9.99
acres
10 acres
or more
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Gain and loss of land 1999-2009
by class in 1999 (% of households)
80%
70%
60%
Whether
gained land
between
1999 and
2009
Whether lost
land between
1998 and
2009
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Ag labour
Small/mid
peasants
Big peasants/
landlords
NonAgricultural
Total
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Assets except land and housing, 1999-2009, by
class in 1999 (notionally at 1999 prices)
25000
20000
15000
Rs.
All assets
except land
and housing
1999 (Rs.)
10000
All assets
except land
and housing
2009 (Rs.)
5000
0
Ag labour
Small/mid
peasants
Big peasants/
landlords
NonAgricultural
Total
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The role of migration
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Migration playing an important role in the
transformation of rural Bihar
But the old social hierarchies persist in the
new economic environment
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% of households with a migrant,
by land ownership class, 2009
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Landless
0.01to
0.99
acres
1.00 to
2.49
acres
2.50 to
4.99
acres
5.0 to
9.99
acres
10 acres
o r mo re
To tal
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Mean monthly income of migrants (Rs.)
by land ownership, 2011
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Landless
0.01to 0.99 1.00 to 2.49 2.50 to
5.00 to
10 acres o r
ac
acres
4.99 acres 9.99 acres
mo re
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Employment status of migrant workers, 2011
Employment status
Frequency
Percent
48
5.9
259
32.0
Salaried worker (public)
75
9.3
Salaried worker (private)
326
40.3
97
12.0
4
.5
809
100.0
Employer/own account worker
Daily wage worker
work on contract/ piece rate
Others
Total
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% of migrants in daily/contract work and salaried work by
land ownership, 2011
90%
80%
70%
Salaried
worker
60%
50%
Daily wage
worker plus
contract
work
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Landless
0.01 to
0.99 ac
1.00 to
2.50 to
5.00 to 10 acres or
2.49 acres 4.99 acres 9.99 acres
more
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Reconceptualizing class
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Agrarian class can no longer be conceptualized
independently of urban structures
Households and economic networks cut across
different production relations in different locations
These connections differ across caste, community
and class
It is necessary to consider urban class structure,
urban labour market segmentation and the
disparities in access to decent employment
Gender differentiation and rising education levels
also need to be taken into account
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Alternative development paths
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Two villages, Mahisham (North Bihar) and Chandkura
(South)
Mahisan:
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Poor transport connections
Dominated by Brahmin landlords in 1981
Stagnant agriculture
High level of long distance migration (migrants in 87% of
households in 2009)
Rising wages
Chandkura
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Close to State capital
Dominated by Kurmi middle peasants
Relatively advanced agriculture
Less migration (43%) but commuting for non-agricultural
work
Rising wages
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Mahisham and Chandkura:
Mean household income in 2011
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Connections with national development
Mahisham
• Access to urban labour markets delivers employment and incomes
• Households straddle urban and rural economies
• Lack of local investment limits production
Chandkura
• Increasing incomes based on agricultural growth and local
employment
• Dependent on high growth of Bihar economy
India
• Pattern of growth draws on circulating labour, rising inequality and
integration of rural hierarchies in urban areas
• Mahisham may fit the current model better than Chandkura
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