Transcript Ethnography: Qualitative Research at its Best

Session 8: Ethnography Qualitative Research At Its Best
& Survey – Descriptive
Sampling
Anne René Elsbree, Ph.D.
Adapted from ppts from Lorraine Nencel, Ronald J. Shope, John W. Creswell &
Metrler & Charles
What is “Qualitative Research”?
• Involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of
narrative data
• Focus tends to be on the quality, rather than quantity,
of an activity
• Greater emphasis on holistic description than in
quantitative research
Qualitative Research
gives the possibility to research & analyze:
– Complexity
– Sensitive subjects
– Subjects (topics) in need of exploration
– Discover associations & relations to be able to:
• contextualize
• explain
• evaluate
• generate
Five Essential Characteristics…
• Qualitative research…
» Is naturalistic.
» Is descriptive.
» Is concerned with process as well as product.
» Has data that are analyzed inductively.
» Has a primary concern with how people make
sense and meaning out of their lives.
The Qualitative Research Process
• Steps are fairly consistent with those used in
quantitative research, however…
» The steps are not quite as distinct
» They may overlap or occur out of
sequential order
The Qualitative Research Process
(cont’d.)
1.
Identification of phenomenon to be studied
2.
Review of related literature
3.
Identification and selection of participants
4.
Collection of data
5.
Analysis of data
6.
Generation of research questions
7.
Additional collection of data, analysis, and
revision of research questions…and more!
8.
Final interpretation of analyses and
development of conclusions
Qualitative Data Collection Techniques
• Goal is to collect narrative data
» Observations
» Fieldnotes & observer’s comments
» Interviews
» Focus groups
» Journals
» Existing documents and records
Characteristics of Qualitative Data
• Validity of research data
» Trustworthiness (accuracy and believability)
» Credibility
» Dependability
» Accomplished through:
Triangulation
Member checking
Prolonged engagement and persistent
observation
Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
• Inductive analysis
» Develop coding scheme
» Code observational notes and interview
transcripts
» Describe main features of categories (as
means of simplifying and reducing data)
» Interpret the simplified data
Approaches to Qualitative Research
• Ethnography — study of the common practices or beliefs of a
culture, group, or other community
• Narrative – convey experiences as expressed in lived and told
stories of individuals
• Historical Research — describes events, settings of the past in an
attempt to better understand them
• Grounded Theory — attempts to discover an existing theory or
generate a new theory directly from data
• Phenomenology — describes and interprets the experiences or
reactions of participants to a particular phenomenon from their
individual perspectives
• Case Study Research — in-depth analysis of a single, restricted
entity
Ethnography?
Ethnographic designs are
qualitative research procedures
for describing, analyzing, and interpreting
a culture-sharing group’s shared patterns of
behavior, beliefs, and language
that develop over time.
The Nature of Ethnographic Research
• Research process used in the study of human interactions
in social settings
• A highly descriptive, holistic approach to research
• Topics must involve people in groups
• May last from a week to several years
• Excellent at constructing a VERY detailed picture of
human life and interactions
Research Complex
Situations Holistically
Facilitates zooming in to particular aspects,
relations or phenomenon in the setting
without losing sight of the whole.
Enables the researcher to
understand the culture
through the interpretations, experiences
and perceptions and meanings
given by those living within
this specific cultural context.
I can’t find my tent,
this is really a
bummer man!
A Summary Description of
Ethnographic Research
• Purpose—to describe/explain segment of group social life
as it pertains to education
• Hypotheses/questions—begin as broad statements;
emerge more specifically as data are collected
• Data—qualitative; verbal descriptions of people,
interactions, settings, etc. within the specific context
• Data sources—people, settings, etc.
A Summary Description of
Ethnographic Research (cont’d.)
• Data collection—done by researcher, through
observations and interviews (naturalistic observation)
• Data analysis—presentation of verbal descriptions
through logical analysis in an attempt to discover themes/
patterns that exist in a particular context
Strengths and Weaknesses of
Ethnographic Research
• Strengths:
» Its holistic nature (as opposed to a “snapshot study”)
• Weaknesses:
» A single observer calls into question the reliability of the data
(and therefore, the validity of the results)
» Must determine if biases exist…if observations are accurate OR
is the researcher upfront about her biases, so that the reader
can make sense of her interpretations.
Ethnography is NOT:
- field technology
- length of time
- simply good description
- anything created with participants
The purpose is to describe and
interpret cultural behavior
(Wolcott, in Jefferson, 1981, p. 6)
When do you conduct an
ethnography?
- Study of a group helps you
understand a larger issue
- Have a culture-sharing
group to study
- Want a day-to-day picture
- Long-term access to culture-sharing group
How was Paris & Nicole’s “Simple Life”
an ethnography?
Natural Setting
Research is done in the unpredictable,
chaos of the natural setting.
This gives ethnographic research one
very special attribute
NAMELY:
The most important
research tool is:
Yourself
Creates and Demands
the Possibility
• To Be Involved
• To Be Reflexive
• To Be Creative
Did Paris & Nicole meet this criteria?
Insider/Outsider
(Emic/Etic)
• There are social, physical,
background factors that make
someone more of an insider or an outsider
• In this sense it is something that we should
take in consideration when reflecting on
identity in field research.
• BUT insider/outsider carries with it other
assumptions…..
Outsider
CULTURE
We now know the
ins and outs, thus
we are no longer
an outsider.
CULTURE
Insider
What happens to our history, past,
experiences in this mode of thinking?
What is comprimised or enhanced?
Insider/Outsider
Ethics
• Don’t throw away the concept entirely.
Superficial, visible, experiential factors do make
someone more an outsider than another.
• The questions remains: if you minimize
these factors as much as possible,
do you then become an insider?
• What is your conceptualization of fieldwork
power relations if you think this is an alternative?
What is the alternative?
• Recognition that:
– Identity as fluid
– Identity is constructed in the field
– Knowledge is constructed in the field
through relations
– Demands that the research relation is also
seen as fluid. (both persons come with
their histories and encounter each other in
a specific context : research context)
Research
Relationship
• A unique relationship which very few people
in the world will experience.
• Constructed in a specific context: research
context
• Mixes insider, outsider, friendship,
professional, etc. all together.
• Assumes that identities meet, individual's
experiences mingle with each other, identities
are recreated, and recognizes that power is
(at least) a two-sided concept.
Being With the Research
Subject in the identities that you
possess (M. de Laine 2000)
Acceptance that a relationship
is a means to an end,
but how you give content
is essential for not making it
an exploitative relationship.
Published Example of Ethnographic Research
“Influences of Teacher–Child Social Interactions on English
Language Development in a Head Start Classroom”
Patton Model of Questioning
1. Behavior or Experience Questions
2. Opinion or Value Questions
3. Feeling Questions
4. Knowledge Questions
5. Sensory Questions
6. Background/Demographic Questions
(James) Spradley Model (1979)
of Questioning
1. Descriptive Questions
a. Tour Questions
b. Experience Questions
c. Native-Language Questions
2. Structural or Explanation Questions
3. Contrast Questions
Other Questioning Models
1. Advice Questions
2. Quotation Questions
3. Once-Upon-A-Time Descriptive
Questions
4. Initial Brainstorming – What do you
need to know to answer research
questions or address the problem
5. The Puzzlement – What about the topic
puzzles you?
The Nature of Narrative Research
• Purpose of narrative research is to tell
stories, specifically the lived and told
stories of individuals
• Several forms of narrative research:
» Biographical study
» Autobiographical study
» Life history
» Personal experience story
» Oral history
Procedures in Narrative Research
• Identify one or two individuals with interesting
life stories to share
• Collect stories in multiple ways
• Be sure to collect information on their specific
context
• Participants’ stories must be analyzed and
“restoried”
• Actively collaborate with participants
• Epiphanies often result from this collaborative
process
Published Example of Narrative Research
“Urban Catholic High Schools & Disadvantaged Females”
What is “Survey Research”?
• Purpose is to describe characteristics of a population
(sometimes also referred to as “descriptive research”)
• Primarily quantitative
• Typically involves the administration of a
questionnaire to individuals who are asked to describe
their attitudes, opinions, behaviors, experiences, etc.
More Characteristics of Survey Research
• Usually not feasible to survey an entire population
• A sample of respondents must be utilized
• Should use probability sampling techniques to better
ensure (although no sampling technique guarantees)
accurate representation
• Key factor in the appropriateness of the inferences
drawn about the population
• Can be used in a descriptive manner, or to
investigate relationships between variables, or in
comparative designs
Modes of Survey Data Collection
• Several modes of survey data collection exist:
» Direct administration of surveys
» Mail surveys
» Telephone surveys
» Interviews
» E-mail surveys
» Web-based surveys
• Characteristics & advantages/limitations of each
(See Table 11.1 in Mertler & Charles)
Types of Surveys
» Descriptive
» Cross-sectional (also known as a census)
» Longitudinal
Trend studies
Cohort studies
Panel studies
Types of Survey Questions
• Several types of survey questions are possible, based on purpose
and format:
» Demographic questions—ask for personal characteristics
» Can be closed or open ended. Which is more inclusive?
What is your gender?
___________________
Closed Ended Question Examples
» Knowledge questions—ask how much individuals know about
a particular subject; more typical on tests
» Attitudinal questions—ask respondents to indicate their
attitudes or opinions about some topic
Closed Ended - Forced Choice Answers
Likert Scale
Dichotomous Set
Of Options Checklist format
Likert Scale Questions
- respond to statement on an “agree-disagree” continuum
 Number of points on Likert scale?
 Neutral point?
Other Likert Scale Questions
— respond to statement on some continuum other than an
“agree-disagree” continuum
Open-Ended Questions
— allow for more individualized responses
Survey Design Considerations
• Care must be taken to avoid the collection of inaccurate data
» Provide directions that make respondent’s task clear.
» Include only items that relate to purpose and RQs.
» For comparisons, you must remember to ask pertinent
demographic questions.
» Survey questions should be clear and unambiguous.
» Avoid asking leading questions.
Survey Design Considerations
(cont’d.)
» Keep your questions short and straightforward.
» Avoid double negatives and negative wording in general.
» Emphasize critical words in the questions with appropriate
formatting.
» Avoid the use of double-barreled questions.
» Use correct spelling and grammar.
Survey Research Process
1. Identification of topic to be studied
2. Review of related literature
3. Identification and selection of participants
4. Determination of the mode of data collection
5. Drafting of the cover letter and instrument
6. Pilot testing of the instrument
7. Collection of data
8. Analysis of data
9. Answering research questions and drawing conclusions
Published Example of Survey Research
“Identifying Substance Abuse Issues in High Schools:
A National Survey of High School Counselors”
Applying Technology to Survey Research…
• Insiteful Surveys (www.insitefulsurveys.com)
• SurveyGuru on MyOnlineForms
(www.myonlineforms.com/surveyguru)
• SurveyMonkey (www.surveymonkey.com)
• Qualtrics (www.qualtrics.com)
• ZapSurvey (www.zapsurvey.com)
• Zoomerang (info.zoomerang.com)
LAY SUMMARY is a description of your research
a. Who are you?
b. What are you doing & Why?
c. What will you do with the results?
d. How were participants selected?
e. What are the possible benefits or risks to
participants?
f. How will you assure confidentiality and anonymity?
g. How often and how long would you like to meet for
interviews and observations? (Or what other
process would apply to your research?)
h. How and in what manner will you ask participants
permission to document their words and actions?