Transcript Everyday Use Chapter 1 Summary

Introduction to Rhetoric
Summary of information from “Everyday Use”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Consider the following scene:
Late night on Route 66, somewhere in Arizona.
Nick checks the speedometer, slows. He looks
over at Kate quickly, then focuses on the
road. He clears his throat.
Kate stares out her window. The corner of her
mouth twitches.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Nick: So, do you think there are many cops on
the road?
Kate: This time of night?
Nick (speeding up): Well… guess not.
Kate reaches for the radio buttons. He reaches
at the same time. Their fingers touch.
Nick and Kate (at once): Sorry.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Nick: I mean… for the radio.
Kate: Me too.
Kate looks out the window again. She begins to
hum with the radio. Nick looks over at her
again, longer this time. He begins to hum
too. She turns to him now. He slows the
car.
Nick: So, do you still want to go to the Grand
Canyon?
Introduction to Rhetoric
In the preceding scene from a film,
what is being said (perhaps
without actually being said)?
How do the possible contexts
affect the meaning of what is said?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric: the art humans use to process sent
and received messages.
Rhetorical choices: choices made to achieve a
desired meaning.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rescuing Rhetoric from its bad reputation.
Common misunderstanding of rhetoric is that a
text lacks sincerity, and is full of coercion
and manipulation.
“Full of rhetoric”: the person has nothing to
say; is misleading and unclear; what they
say is a roadblock to real progress.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rescuing Rhetoric from its bad reputation.
Rhetor: speaker/writer persuading others
because they have something valuable to say.
“a good person speaking well”
Rhetoric: the art of analyzing language choices
made in a given situation so that the text
becomes meaningful
Specific features of a text that give it meaning
Activity on page 4; questions on page 7
Introduction to Rhetoric
The Rhetorical Triangle:
Speaker
Audience
Subject
Introduction to Rhetoric
The Rhetorical Triangle:
Three basic keys
1. Understanding Persona
2. Understanding Appeals to Audience
3. Understanding Subject
Three other keys:
1. Understanding Context
2. Understanding Intention
3. Understanding Genre
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Persona
Readers need to know that the Persona is:
•Educated
•Considerate
•Trustworthy
•Well-Intentioned
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Understanding Persona
Persona: creation of voice, word choices, etc.
Voice: textual features that convey persona
read SI article on pages 8-9
Tone: speaker’s attitude toward a subject
Diction: word choice
Logic: art of reasoning
Irony: opposite meaning of what is said
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Persona
Persona is often genuine, but occasionally
comical for effect
Writers use voice to affect readers’
understanding and beliefs
The mask of persona doesn’t hide you from the
reader, it meets them head on and
interacts purposely and effectively
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Appeals to the Audience
Writer must understand how a text appeals to
the audience:
•Locate “available means of persuasion”
•Understand needs, knowledge, experience of the
reader
•Research and develop topics
Goal is to persuade audience to a course of
action based upon a common search for
truth
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Appeals to the Audience
Logos: evidence (facts) to support an idea
Ethos: credibility of speaker and sources
Pathos: appeals to emotion
These are not used separately or exclusively
“Things that are true and just tend to prevail
over their opposite”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Subject
Treat the subject fairly, fully, and effectively
Consider what to include, why to include it, the
audience, and what kind of text ought to be
used.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Subject
Essentials:
•Subject must be “open”
•Capitalize on what the audience knows, make
them curious, then satisfy their curiosity
•Claim + support
•Generate ample support
Thesis Statement: main point of an argument
Introduction to Rhetoric
Modifying the Rhetorical Triangle: Rhetoric
in Context
Speaker
Context
genre
intention
Audience
Subject
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric in Context
Context: time, place, people, events, motives,
that influence a work
Intention: rhetorical transactions designed to
achieve a purpose
Genre: style or type of writing selected to
achieve a purpose
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Context
No text is an island
immediate situation
historical background
persona
audience
Current events lose their currency quickly
Use cultural context
Make it relevant to the audience – local appeal
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Intention
A call to action
An attempt to change an opinion
Write about what interests you
Introduction to Rhetoric
Understanding Genre
Use of a particular type of text
Genre needs to match context and purpose
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric in Life
Understand how and why messages affect us
Helps raise social consciousness and
contribution
Rhetoric is a two-way street of expectations
Read essay on 23-24
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric and Conscientious Consumption
We are inundated with messages
How do we know to whom to listen or what
to do?
Consider the following ads in light of these
questions:
•How does a good reader evaluate the claims?
•How does each message attempt to persuade
its audience?
•What does each message attempt to persuade
the audience to do?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric and Conscientious Consumption
Consider the following ads in light of these
questions:
•How does a good reader evaluate the claims?
•How does each message attempt to persuade
its audience?
•What does each message attempt to persuade
the audience to do?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Review:
1. Rhetoric is not for the elite. It is an
accessible set of techniques and practices
available to all.
2. Rhetoric is the specific features of a text that
catch the audience’s attention and show the
author’s purpose.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Review:
Six elements of the Rhetorical Triangle:
• Writer / Speaker
• Audience
• Subject
• Context
• Purpose
• Genre
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Review:
Questions:
• What persona is the author projecting?
• Who is the intended audience?
• What is the speaker-audience relationship?
• What is the central idea?
• How is the text developed?
• How is the text organized?
• What is the context?
• How does the context influence the text?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric at Work: Context and the three appeals
Text always has a context
Text uses appeals to convey information and to
influence thinking.
Logos: “embodied thought”
Ethos: “good-willed credibility”
Pathos: “feelings (sympathy and empathy)”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric at Work: Context and the three appeals
Canons suggest strategies to be used in
making appeals.
Invention: generate material that is clear, forceful,
convincing, and emotionally appealing
Arrangement, Style, Delivery: put material into
structures, patterns, and formats that are
understandable; help reader see you as credible
Memory: tap into memories and cultural associations;
show the reader you are one of them
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention
Latin “invenire” – to find
Conducting an inventory:
readers “take inventory” of what is
presented
writers “take inventory” of what is available
and put together text
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #1: Journalist’s Questions
1.Who was involved?
2.What happened?
3.When did it happen?
4.Where did it happen?
5.Why did it happen?
6.How did it happen?
Look beyond the text for larger issues and
significance of the events
Introduction to Rhetoric
Consider the following:
“For developing a concept of securing small
loans to new businesses in developing
countries, the Bangladeshi economist
Mohammed Yunus yesterday was awarded
the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize.”
Given this lead, what details is the news
story that follows obligated to unpack for
readers?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #2: Enthymeme
People usually write about issues with multiple viewpoints.
Argument: a carefully constructed, well-supported
representation of one perspective.
Enthymeme: a logical argument with an unstated
premise.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #2: Enthymeme
Syllogism: two premises and a conclusion
Major premise = generalization
Minor premise = particular
Conclusion follows logically
A syllogism is airtight if the premises are true
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Invention Strategy #2: Enthymeme
Syllogism examples:
All humans are mortal
Socrates was human
Therefore, Socrates was mortal
Women are wise
Kate is a woman
Therefore, Kate is wise
Introduction to Rhetoric
Deductive Arguments (more about Syllogisms)
Deduction: true premises = true conclusions.
Proper deduction = a valid (not always true) argument.
Conclusion does not go beyond the premises.
Deduction offers effective organization
Introduction to Rhetoric
Modus Ponens
If p, then q.
p.
Therefore q.
Example:
If optimists are more likely to succeed than
pessimists, then you should be an optimist.
Optimists are more likely to succeed.
Therefore, you should be an optimist.
Be sure to explain and defend premises.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Modus Tollens
If p, then q.
Not q.
Therefore not p.
Example:
If the visitor was a stranger, then the dog
would have barked.
The dog did not bark.
Therefore, the visitor was not a stranger.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Hypothetical Syllogism
If p, then q.
If q, then r.
Therefore if p, then r.
Example:
If you study other cultures, then you realize the
variety of human customs.
If you realize the variety of human customs, then you
question your own customs.
Therefore, if you study other cultures, then you
question your own customs.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Disjunctive Syllogism
p or q.
Not p.
Therefore q.
“or” can be inclusive or exclusive
Example:
Either we hope for progress by improving morals, or
by improving intelligence.
We can’t hope for progress by improving morals.
Therefore, we must hope for improvement by
improving intelligence.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Dilemma
p or q.
If p, then r.
If q, then s.
Therefore r or s.
Two options, both have equally good or bad
consequences.
Example:
Either we say John’s baptism is from heaven or that it is from
men.
If we say it is from heaven, we will be blamed for not believing
him.
If we say it is from men, we will be stoned for insulting the
popular belief about him.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Reductio ad absurdum.
Indirect Proof
To prove p, assume the opposite (not p).
Argue that from this assumption, we’d have to
conclude q.
Show that q is false or absurd, therefore p can’t be
true.
Introduction to Rhetoric
To prove:
The world does not have a Creator in the way a house does.
Assume the opposite:
The world does have a Creator in the way a house does.
Argue that from the assumption we’d have to conclude:
The Creator is imperfect (because the world is imperfect).
But:
God (the Creator) cannot be imperfect.
Conclude:
The world does not have a Creator in the way a house does.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #2: Enthymeme
Enthymeme vs. Syllogism
the major premise is unstated, but
understood and accepted
[Women are wise]
Kate is a woman.
Of course she gave me good advice.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #2: Enthymeme
But, what if readers don’t accept major premise?
[All creatures of the earth play a natural role in
maintaining the ecological stability of an area]
Animals such as… contribute to the ecological
stability of an area near rural property by feeding on
vegetation and smaller animals
Animals such as…, as creatures of the earth,
deserve a stable ecological habitat in which to live,
as humans do.
Begging the Question – writer must convince the
reader
Activity on page 46
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #3: Topics
Basic Topics (ways to structure an argument):
1.Possible & Impossible: if x is possible, so is y;
if x is impossible, so is y.
2.Past Fact: given all known facts, x probably
happened
3.Future Fact: given all known facts, x will probably
happen
4.Greater & Less: if x is possible, so is greater
than x; if y is possible, so is less than y
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategy #3: Topics
Common Topics (ways to structure an argument):
1.Definition: distinguish one thing from all others
2.Division: divide subject into smaller parts
3.Compare/Contrast: similarities & differences
4.Relationships: relationships between parts
5.Circumstances: “Basic Topics”
6.Testimony: use of experts, authorities, etc.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Section 1:
• The Big Picture: The Rhetorical Triangle
Interaction between Speaker/Writer,
Audience, and Subject
Influence of Context, Genre, and
Intention
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric in Context
Speaker
Context
genre
intention
Audience
Subject
Introduction to Rhetoric
Section 2:
• Rhetoric In Practice:
Invention Strategies = starting point for
both Writer / Speaker and Reader
Importance of Cultural Memory
Introduction to Rhetoric
Invention Strategies:
• Journalist Questions
• Syllogisms & Enthymemes
• Basic Topics
• Common Topics
Introduction to Rhetoric
1. We have seen the Big Picture of what
Rhetoric is and how it is used in a variety
of ways.
2. We have been given a variety of starting
points with which to begin using rhetoric
in our reading and writing.
3. This final section will give us very
practical means for rhetorical analysis as
readers and use of rhetorical devices as
writers.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetoric at Work: Context and the three appeals
Canons suggest strategies to be used in
making appeals.
Invention: generate material that is clear, forceful,
convincing, and emotionally appealing
Arrangement, Style, Delivery: put material into
structures, patterns, and formats that are
understandable; help reader see you as credible
Memory: tap into memories and cultural associations;
show the reader you are one of them
Introduction to Rhetoric
Arrangement:
Principles of arrangement help a writer to:
1. Order and structure parts of a piece of
writing
2. Support those parts of writing
Invention and Arrangement work hand-in-hand
Invention: gather and inventory material
Arrangement: select what to use and how to
present it.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Arrangement:
Genres are types of compositions, based upon
context and purpose.
Each genre has its own set of rules.
No single pattern will work in all situations.
However, all texts have a beginning, middle,
and end.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Arrangement:
Beginning: States central argument or poses
central question. Preview of text
development
Middle: Supports central argument / Answers
central question
End: Wraps up the argument. Asks “So What?”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Arrangement: Six-Part Argument
1. Exordium: “web” or hook
2. Narration: background material / context
3. Partition: what will and won’t be included
4. Confirmation: supports argument
5. Refutation: addresses counterarguments
6. Peroration: conclusion / call to action
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style:
Choices regarding words, phrases, sentences.
1. Does style reflect personality?
2. Is style governed by occasion and
appropriateness?
3. Is style a conscious effort?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and situation:
The answer to most questions about style is “It
depends on the situation.”
Situation: Need to write, writer, audience,
subject, purpose, genre, time, place
Issues of style: figurative language, first-person,
second-person, contractions, active voice,
passive voice.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and jargon:
Writing should be accessible to the welleducated, diligent reader.
Use complicated words when appropriate.
Use specialized vocabulary when appropriate.
Make it accessible. Make it sound natural.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and personal pronouns:
Academic papers: No. Focus is on the subject, not
the author or audience.
Personal response: Yes (It depends).
Business correspondence: Yes.
Formal writing: No.
Informal writing: Yes, depending on intention and
relationship with the reader.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and active vs. passive voice:
Active Voice: Doer – Action – Receiver
The lab technician filtered the solution.
Passive Voice: Receiver – Action (by Doer)
The solution was filtered by the lab technician.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and active vs. passive voice:
Active Voice is preferred because:
1. Active voice is more forceful.
2. Passive voice uses more words (helping
verbs).
3. Passive voice conceals the doer of the
action.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Style and active vs. passive voice:
Advantages of Passive Voice:
1. More conducive to scientific and technical
writing (emphasis on what is done, rather
than who does it).
2. Emphasis can be placed on the doer by
moving the subject to the end of the
sentence.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Dimensions of style: Sentences, words, &
figures
Syntax: grammatical type, placement of details,
variety
Diction: level of elaborateness and formality,
difficulty, technicality
Figurative Language: figures of speech used to add
emphasis
Introduction to Rhetoric
Sentences:
Simple Sentence: a single independent clause
Abraham Lincoln struggled to save the Union.
Simple sentences can have a compound
subject, compound verb, or both.
Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson struggled to save the
Union.
Abraham Lincoln struggled to save the Union and persevered.
Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson struggled to save
the Union and persevered.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Sentences:
Compound Sentence: two independent
clauses joined by a conjunction.
Abraham Lincoln struggled to save the
Union, and Andrew Johnson helped him.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Sentences:
Complex Sentence: one independent
clause and at least one subordinate
clause.
When the leaders of the Confederacy
insisted that the rights of the states were
more important than the maintenance of
the Union, Abraham Lincoln and Andrew
Johnson struggled to save the Union and
persevered.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Sentences:
Compound-Complex Sentence: has
defining features of both a compound
and complex sentence.
When the leaders of the Confederacy insisted that the
rights of the states were more important than the
maintenance of the Union, Abraham Lincoln
struggled to save the Union and persevered, and
Andrew Johnson assisted him.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Loose and Periodic Sentences:
Use the sentence type that best fits your
purpose.
Basic sentences: subject, verb, compliments
Abraham Lincoln wept.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Loose and Periodic Sentences:
Loose Sentences: a basic sentence with details
added immediately at the end.
Abraham Lincoln wept, fearing that the
Union would not survive if the southern
states seceded.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Loose and Periodic Sentences:
Periodic Sentences: a basic sentence with
details added either before the basic
elements, or in the middle of the basic
elements.
Alone in his study, dejected but not
broken in spirit, Abraham Lincoln wept.
Abraham Lincoln, alone in his study, wept.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Loose and Periodic Sentences:
The structure of a sentence affects the way it is
read and understood.
Pacing:
Loose – faster pace, crisp, business-like
Periodic – delays, balanced, thoughtful
Sentence structure says much about the writer
and his purpose, credibility (ethos), and
goals.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Parallel Structure:
Two or more similar ideas expressed in
grammatically similar ways.
Most obvious when parallel structure is absent.
In these moments, Rivka discovers the bitter
truth about her husband’s hidden life, her
son’s death, and that Herman was not
sending her letters all along.
Introduction to Rhetoric
Parallel Structure:
Correct Parallel Structure:
In these moments, Rivka discovers the truth
about her husband’s hidden life, her
son’s death, and Herman’s deceit about
the letters.
(all are noun phrases)
Introduction to Rhetoric
Parallel Structure:
Parallel Structure exists on phrase level and the
sentence level.
“we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate,
we cannot hallow this ground…”
“government of the people, by the people,
for the people”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Words:
Diction: word choice (Latin dictio = style of
speech)
Diction depends on situation and genre
Ask “What is my purpose, who is my audience,
and what kind of text am I writing?”
Introduction to Rhetoric
Words: General vs. Specific
Ladder of Abstraction:
higher = abstract
lower = specific
A good writer can move up and down the ladder
easily.
Movement depends on situation and genre
What is most useful to the audience?
Introduction to Rhetoric
Words: Formal vs. Informal
Diction should fit occasion.
Formal: no contractions, no first- or secondperson
Informal: contractions, first-person, limited
second person, slang, colloquialisms
Introduction to Rhetoric
Words: Common Terms vs. Jargon & Slang
Slang: language of a particular group (informal)
Jargon: specialized language of a group
(formal)
Using slang or jargon might obscure meaning,
rather than clarify.
But, it can lend credibility with that particular
group
Introduction to Rhetoric
Words: Denotation & Connotation
Denotation: literal meaning of a word
Connotation: association evoked by a word
Introduction to Rhetoric
Rhetorical Devices:
Rhetorical Devices fall into the following categories:
• Parallelism
• Repetition
• Omission
• Figurative Language
• Irony
• Diction
• Syntax
• Structure
Use the ones that will present your argument in
the best possible way.