Transcript Teaching Grammar

Punctuations
Week 11
Contents:



Punctuations
Describing graphs and tables
Writing numbers
Punctuation

Periods .

Commas ,
Colons :
Semicolons ;
Question marks ?
Exclamation points !

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Apostrophes '
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Quotation marks "
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Hyphens -
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Dashes --
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Parentheses (

Brackets [
]
)
"
Semicolon ( ; )
The semicolon is an important punctuation mark in
English and has several uses; it is particularly common in
formal and/or academic writing. There are several common
ways of using the semicolon.
1. Use a semicolon to connect sentences that have
closely related ideas.
2. Use a semicolon to connect items in lists if the items
in the lists contain commas.
3. When sentences are connected by using conjunctive
adverbs, the semicolon comes at the end of the first
sentence.
1. Use a semicolon to connect sentences
that have closely related ideas.
Examples:


He came; he saw; he conquered.
She always does her best; that's one reason everyone admires her.

Dave Johnson and his family recently visited a village near
Chiangmai, Thailand; Dave's wife, May, comes from there.

Almost everyone has heard of the Time Square of New York City;
it's one of the most famous tourist attractions in the U.S.A.

John and his wife are newlyweds; they got married only a few days
ago.
Special notes
1. Periods could also be used for these sentences, but the semicolons
emphasize how closely related the sentences are. (If periods are used,
the sentences seem "choppy.")
2. Most authorities state that when a semicolon is used with
parentheses (( )) or with quotation marks (" "), the semicolon should be
outside the parentheses or quotation marks:

Bill said, "I was born in a very small town"; he went on to say that it's a
friendly place with a population of less than 1,000.

Ms. Jones was probably referring to the state of Washington (which is in
the north-western U.S.); a reference to Washington, D.C. doesn't seem
very logical to me.
2. Use a semicolon to connect items in lists
if the items in the lists contain commas.
Examples:

She's lived in San Antonio, Dallas and Irving, Texas; Palms,
West Los Angeles, and Brentwood, California; Arch Cape and
Portland, Oregon; and Phoenix, Arizona.

We invited Bob's girlfriend, Annie; Judy, Ahmed, and Simon;
Simon's cousins, Hugo and Peter; our next-door neighbor,
Tina, and her husband; and three or four other people.

For the class you'll need two diskettes, either formatted or
unformatted; paper, both for the printer and for your class
notes; and, of course, the textbook.
Special notes
1. Semicolons are very helpful, in sentences such as the
ones above, in making the lists less confusing. Without
the semicolons, the items in the list would be difficult to
understand; using commas alone would not separate the
items clearly:
Example:
We invited Bob's girlfriend, Annie, Judy, Ahmed, and Simon,
Simon's cousins, Hugo and Peter, our next-door neighbor, Tina, and
her husband, and three or four other people.
(This sentence is confusing because the items in the list are not
clearly separated.)
2. Periods cannot be used instead of semicolons in
sentences like those above.
3. When sentences are connected by using
conjunctive adverbs, the semicolon comes at the
end of the first sentence.
Conjunctive adverbs (sentence connectors) include connecting words
such as however, therefore, besides, consequently, nevertheless, in
addition, accordingly, and otherwise.
Examples:
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Sandy might have been sick and unable to come to work; however, I
suspect that she took the day off and went shopping.
We're expected to do all the assigned work; in addition, we're required
to read and report on three books that we can choose ourselves.
The last three shipments were damaged when they were received;
consequently, all new shipments will be inspected just before they
leave the factory.
Mike found the work very difficult and was often tempted to quit;
nevertheless, he kept on trying and eventually did quite well on it.
Special notes
Periods can be used with conjunctive adverbs
instead of semicolons.
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
She was extremely tired. However, she finished her
assignment.
She was extremely tired; however, she finished her
assignment.
Commas ( , )

Use commas to keep your writing clear. Omitted or
incorrectly used, commas can cause confusion or even
change meaning. Commas should be used with the
following elements:
1.
Introductory elements
Coordinating conjunctions joining independent clauses
Elements in a series
Coordinate modifiers
Nonrestrictive modifiers
Parenthetic elements
Elliptical constructions
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
(http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/commas.htm)
1. Introductory elements
Use commas to set off transitional words and phrases, introductory
clauses, or introductory phrases to signal where the introductory
element finishes and the main part starts.
(1) Transitional Words and Phrases
Place a comma after a transitional word or phrase that begins a
sentence.
Moreover, the opening of an export market would help expand the
market for key escrow encryption.
In addition, several companies and individuals have proposed
commercial key escrow approaches.
(2) Introductory Clauses
Place a comma after an introductory dependent clause.
Although key escrow is voluntary, critics say that the introduction of
clipper points national policy in a disturbing direction.
(3) Introductory Prepositional or Verbal Phrases
Normally, use a comma after an introductory prepositional or verbal
phrase. However, you may omit the comma after a short
introductory phrase if no ambiguity is possible.
Examples:
For the first time, researchers have used DNA analysis to identify
the animal tissue in 4,000-year-old rock paintings.
Despite the error the experiment was successful.
Combining surface area with depth, we calculated the volume of
the pond.
(Do not place a comma after an introductory participial or gerund
phrase if the phrase forms part of the subject or verb of the sentence.)
Combining surface area with depth was our principal method for
calculating the volume of the pond.
2. Coordinating Conjunctions Joining
Independent Clauses
Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins
two independent clauses. However, if the clauses are very
short and closely related, you may omit the comma.
Acceptable
In almost all illicit markets, only the tip of the iceberg is
visible, and there is no reason why the nuclear-materials
black market should be an exception.
Unacceptable
In almost all illicit markets, only the tip of the iceberg is
visible and there is no reason why the nuclear-materials
black market should be an exception.
3. Elements in a series
Use a comma to separate items in a series. Although
placing a final comma before the coordinating conjunction is often
considered optional, omitting it can sometimes cause confusion.
 In a 3-or-more-element list, it's better to put comma between each
of the items (including the last two), for clarity.
 Most scientific and technical writing routinely uses a final comma in
a series to prevent possible ambiguities.

As a simple example of why, consider this 3-element grocery list
written without the clarifying last comma:
“milk, macaroni and cheese and crackers”.
It's not clear whether that means
{ milk, macaroni and cheese, crackers } or
{ milk, macaroni, cheese and crackers }.
Other examples:
His intellectual acuity, diverse interests, frail physique, and
ethereal personality made Oppenheimer a man of legendary
proportions.
[In this sentence, omitting the final comma would not cause
confusion. Still, it is good practice in scientific and technical writing
to always include the final comma in a series.]
Weak
Contemporary physics is still exploring neutron stars, black holes
and the penetration of electrons through potential barriers.
[The omission of the final comma before and causes ambiguity: are
black holes and the penetration of electrons through potential
barriers specific topics connected to the general subject of neutron
stars, or are they separate items?]
Improved
Contemporary physics is still exploring neutron stars, black holes,
and the penetration of electrons through potential barriers.
4. Coordinate Modifiers
Use a comma between coordinate modifiers. Modifiers
are coordinate if they modify the same word.
(You can test to see if the modifiers are coordinate by
inserting and between them. If the description still makes
sense, then the modifiers are coordinate.)
Example:
Ebola viruses are known as filose viruses for their long,
filament like appearance under a microscope.
[Long and filament like modify the appearance of the virus
equally, so a comma is needed between them.]
5. Nonrestrictive Modifiers
Use commas to set off nonrestrictive modifiers.
A nonrestrictive modifier is usually introduced by which
and contains information that is not essential to
establishing the meaning of what it modifies.
Example:
Infectious diseases, which antibiotics and vaccines
once promised to banish from our shores, have
returned with a vengeance.
6. Parenthetic Elements
Use commas to set off parenthetic elements.
Example:
Oppenheimer became known, of course, for leading the
physicists who built the atomic bomb at Los Alamos
Laboratory.
7. Elliptical Constructions
Use a comma to indicate the omission of a word or
words readily understood from the context.
Example:
In the United States there are ninety-two scanners; in
Europe, eighty-five; in all of Africa, six.
[The commas indicate the omission of the words there
are.]
Specialized Uses of Commas
(1) In numbers with five or more digits, Anglo-American usage
dictates that there be commas before groups of three digits.
Customers reported a total of 212,413 hardware malfunctions.
(2) Use commas to separate adjacent numbers.
In 1994, 212 cases had been diagnosed.
(3) Use commas to separate items in an address.
Einstein then moved to Princeton, New Jersey.
The branch office address is 958 Ridge Road, Hayes, KS,
which is in the northern part of the state.
Portland, Oregon, is the site of the new factory.
(4) Use commas to set off the year in dates expressed in the
month-day-year sequence.
Greenberg began the project on July 2,1992.
The first meeting will be held on Tuesday, May 5, at the high
school.
It rained on Monday, August 20, 1991, before the crop was
harvested.
(5) Omit commas when only the month and the year are stated.
Greenberg began the project in July 1992.
The tropical storms of July 1998 were very severe.
(6) In dates written in the day-month-year sequence, the comma
is omitted.
Greenberg began the project on 2 July1992.
Colons (:)
Use colons for the following purposes:
1. to introduce and emphasize lists, quotations and
explanations and certain appositional elements.
2. to express ratios.
3. to separate numbers signifying different nouns, such as
in separating units of time or elements in a bibliographic
citation.
4. to separate titles from subtitles
1.
To introduce and emphasize
(1) To set off and emphasize lists
Begin each element of lists, series, or phrases with lowercase letters.
Examples:
Anyone communicating via computer needs a security system that
ensures three essential requirements: confidentiality, authentication, and
trust.
The market for photovoltaic power systems includes the following items:
intrusion alarms, flood monitors, calculators, and telephone call boxes.
Or
The market for photovoltaic power systems includes the following items:
- intrusion alarms
- flood monitors
- calculators
- telephone call boxes
(2). To set off and emphasize quotations
Place colons outside quotation marks.

The contract reads: "DL-400 coaxial cable shall be
used for all platform instrument installations at Site 5,
unless a specific exception is justified in the approved
work order."

Kurt noted: "Even potatoes are probably much better
guarded today than radioactive materials."
(3). To set off and emphasize explanations
and appositional elements

In designing the tachometer, the team first posed a question:
What operations are needed on the input signal in order to
generate the desired output?

This system currently operates in a strictly one-sided fashion:
the machine makes sure the person who inserted the card is
its legitimate owner by asking for a secret password, but the
cardholder must blindly trust that the machine has not been
tampered with.

While thinking about this problem, we were reminded of an
access-control system with similar demands that is used
successfully worldwide on a daily basis: passports.
2. To express ratios

The ratio of drag torque to bearing friction torque cannot
exceed3:1.

The anti-GAP 43, anti-MAP 2, and anti-synaptophysin
antibodies were diluted1:1000, 1:300, and 1:100,
respectively, in phosphate-buffered saline
containing10% bovine serum albumin.
3. To separate units of time
The main thruster engines ignited at 7:05 a.m.
EDT.
To separate elements in a citation (in certain
documentation styles)
E. F. Lyon, "Airport Surface Traffic Automation,"
Lincoln Laboratory Journal 4:151 (1991).
Dashes (-- )
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Use dashes--sparingly--to indicate sudden shifts in
thought and to set off or emphasize appositional or
parenthetical elements or interjections.
In most cases, use commas or parentheses instead.
In typewritten documents, use two hyphens (--) with no
spaces between or around them to form a dash.
Example:
Although we have made these comments with specific
reference to water--only because of our familiarity with
water--all pure substances exhibit the same behavior.
Hyphens (- )
Use hyphens to link
1. certain prefixes, letters, and numbers with nouns
2. compound nouns
3. compound modifiers
4. spelled-out numbers
Also use hyphens for the following purposes:
 to clarify the meaning of certain words
 to divide words
Ex, com-pu-ter, light-year, hyper-tension
 to express to or through between two letters or numbers
Ex. pages 25-63, 1901-1911
 for specialized scientific notation
Ex, carbon-14 (chemical elements)
1. To Link Certain Prefixes, Letters, and
Numbers with Nouns

Use hyphens to connect certain prefixes to nouns.
all- ex- half- quasi- self- hex-

However, scientific and technical writing styles omit the
hyphen between most prefixes, especially prefixes that are
not words themselves.
http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/hyphen.htm
The following list of prefixes that normally are not
followed by a hyphen:
aero after ante anti astro auto bi bio chemo co
counter de
electro exo extra geo hemo hyper
hypo in infra inter iso macro meta micro mid mini
multi non over phto physio poly post pre pro
pesudo re semi sub super supra trans un
2. To Link Compound Nouns
Use a hyphen to link compound nouns, especially when the
lack of a hyphen would change the meaning of the term.
Examples:

light-year

light year
[The first term is a unit of measurement, not of time; the
second pair of words, on the other hand, may indicate a
year that is not heavy.]
3. To Link Compound Modifiers
Use a hyphen to connect compound modifiers to promote
clarity and prevent ambiguity.
Examples:
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


laser-alignment process
laser alignment
the two-tube combiner or the two tube combiners
wire-grid level adjustment
wire grid-level adjustment
heavy-water cavity [a cavity for heavy water]
heavy water cavity [a water cavity that is heavy]
4. To Link Spelled-Out Numbers
Use a hyphen to join spelled-out numbers from 21
through 99 and spelled-out fractions.
Examples:



twenty-one moving parts
the thirty-third experiment
four-fifth of the subjects
Basic sentence punctuation
patterns
punctuation patterns:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IC, cc IC.
IC; IC.
IC; trans, IC.
DC, IC.
IC DC.
My boss warned me about being late, but he
didn’t fire me.
My boss warned me about being late; he
didn’t fire me.
My boss warned me about being late;
however, he didn’t fire me.
Although my boss warned me about being
late, he didn’t fire me.
My boss didn’t fire me although he warned
me about being.
IC = independent clause (S+V and can stand alone)
DC = Dependent clause (is introduced by a signal word)
Cc = coordinate conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet)
Trans = transitional expression
Describing Graphs and Tables
A graph is a visual, concise means of presenting
information; a table presents facts and figures in compact
form.
http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~pkanchan/html/graph.htm
http://www.writefix.com/graphs/index.htm
http://www.eslflow.com/describinggraphstables.html
http://adw.hct.ac.ae/site_ilc/sites_ielts/graphsite/index.htm
There are three basic kinds of graphs:
1. a circle or pie graph
2. a bar graph
3. a line graph
Making Inferences from Graphs and Tables
Graphs and tables are visual representations which can give
information both directly and indirectly.
Following are some expressions we may use when making inferences:
 From the information given, I conclude that ~
infer that ~
assume that ~
 From the information given, it can be decided that ~
concluded that ~
inferred that ~
assumed that ~
 The information (in the text/ in Figure…) implies that ~
suggests that ~
hints that ~
Describing Graphs and Tables
The information contained in a graph or a table can also be
expressed in words. The following are some useful
expressions describing graphs and tables:





make up
account for
be responsible for
contribute to
constitute
Example:
According to Figure 1, food garbage makes up 17% of
the total solid waste collected in the United States in 1975.
When comparison is involved, these expressions
may be used:
Adjective
Noun
slight
rise
slow
increase
steep
rise
gradual
decrease
steady
decline
marked
fall
dramatic
drop
sharp
drop
sudden
drop
considerable
drop
rapid
drop
Example:
There has been a steady decline in oil price.
Example:
Verb
adverb
rise
slightly
increase
slowly
decrease
gradually
decline
steadily
fall
markedly
drop
dramatically
drop
considerably
climb
steadily
fluctuated
slightly
It can be seen from Figure 3 that the concentration of sulfur dioxide
increases sharply from September and falls dramatically from December.
Useful language for interpreting graphs
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The graph illustrates / shows the rise in . . .
The graph illustrates / shows that . . .
It is estimated that . . .
There was / has been a downward trend in customer numbers.
The trend was flat.
The present trend is maintained.
Production started the year in a stable position, but then plunged /
plummeted / slumped in the third quarter.
It has now flattened out / leveled out.
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Production showed a marginal rise in the first three quarters, but
then suffered a sharp drop.
Production has experienced a strong, steady growth over the whole
year.
Production grew rapidly in the first quarter, and reached a plateau of
development (穩定水準 ).
Since then it has remained more or less stable.
Since then, it has quickly dropped.
Production started climbing steadily / began to rise rapidly but
leveled off / flattened off at a level of around.
Sales rocketed. Prices are soaring / rocketing / skyrocketing.
Customer numbers (have) soared.
There was / has been a steep rise in customer numbers.
Customer numbers hit / reached a peak.
There was a peak in customer numbers.
There was a slight dip in customer numbers.
There was a steady fall / decline in customer numbers.

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Production has fluctuated all year.
Customer numbers rose.
There was a gradual rise in customer numbers.
There has been a slight increase in production over the year.
Numbers fell steadily.
Production has dropped slowly but steadily over the year.
The number of customers fell dramatically.
Production fell sharply / considerably in / over the last quarter,
reaching a low of . . . Since then it has staged a partial recovery.
There was a rapid / considerable / dramatic / sharp drop in
production in the first two quarters.
Customer numbers dipped / plunged.
There were considerable / wild fluctuations in customer numbers.
Example 1
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The graph shows Oil Production Capacity in millions of barrels per day for selected
Gulf countries. There are several features in this graph.
The most significant feature is that oil production will increase sharply in almost all
the countries shown. Kuwait and Iraq are both expected to double their output
between 1990 and 2010, with Kuwait's production rising from 1.8 million barrels per
day (bpd) in 1990 to 3.8 in 2010. Iran will also increase its output by a slightly
smaller amount. After remaining steady at 2.5 million bpd from 1990 to 2000, the
UAE's output is expected to approach 4.0 million bpd in 2010. Only Qatar's
production is predicted to fall, back to 0.8 million bpd after a slight rise in 2000.
However, the greatest increase will be from Saudi Arabia. In 1990, its output capacity
at 8.5 million bpd exceeded the combined production of Iran, Iraq and Kuwait. This
lead is expected to continue with a 75% increase in production to 14.5 million bpd
2010.
In summary, while most of the countries are expected to show increases, Saudi
Arabia will maintain and strengthen its position as the major producer.
Example 2
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The graph shows the fluctuation in the number of people at a London
underground station over the course of a day.
The busiest time of the day is in the morning. There is a sharp increase
between 06:00 and 08:00, with 400 people using the station at 8 o'clock. After
this the numbers drop quickly to less than 200 at 10 o'clock. Between 11 am
and 3 pm the number rises, with a plateau of just under 300 people using the
station.
In the afternoon, numbers decline, with less than 100 using the station at 4 pm.
There is then a rapid rise to a peak of 380 at 6pm. After 7 pm, numbers fall
significantly, with only a slight increase again at 8pm.
Overall, the graph shows that the station is most crowded in the early morning
and early evening periods.
Writing Numbers

Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers
that can be expressed in one or two words and use
figures for other numbers.
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/593/01/ )
Words (less than “100”)
 six million dollars
 after thirty-one years
 eighty-three people
 over two pounds
Figures (more than “100”)
(100 以上的數目如能以兩個字來表示者例外: two hundred )
 only $31.50
 6,381 bushels
 4.78 liters
 after 126 days
There are twenty-six students in my wife's third-grade class.
Michael is over 183 centimeters tall.
some examples of specific situations.
Days and Years
 December 12, 1965 or 12 December, 1965
 A.D. 1066
 in 1900
 in 1971-72 or in 1971-1972
 the eighties, the twentieth century
 the 1980's or the 1980s
Time of Day
 8:00 A.M. (or) a.m. (or) eight o'clock in the morning
 4:30 P.M. (or) p.m. (or) half-past four in the afternoon
The first election results are expected around 1 a.m.
Addresses
 16 Tenth Street
 350 West 114 Street
Identification Numbers
 Room 8
 Channel 18
 Interstate 65
Page and Division of Books


page 30
chapter 6
Decimals and Percentages



a 2.7 average
13 1/4 percent
.037 metric ton
Large Round Numbers




four billion dollars (or) $4 billion
16,500,000 (or) 16.5 million
Tickets cost $35.50 apiece.
The city spent $1.1 million for snow removal last year.
(or $1,100,000.)
Notes on Usage
Repeat numbers in legal or commercial writing.

The bill will not exceed one hundred (100) dollars.
Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

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two apples, six oranges, and three bananas
NOT: two apples, 6 oranges, and 3 bananas
115 feet by 90 feet (or) 115' x 90'
scores of 25-6 (or) scores of 25 to 6
The vote was 9 in favor and 5 opposed
Write out numbers beginning sentences.
Six percent of the group failed.
6% of the group failed.
Use a combination of figures and words for numbers
when such a combination will keep your writing clear.

The club celebrated the birthdays of 6 90-year-olds who
were born in the city. (may cause the reader to read '690'
as one number.)

The club celebrated the birthdays of six 90-year-olds who
were born in the city.
Web links
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http://penscanner.bellus.com.tw/howtothesis-2.html
(Technical writing)
http://pioneer.netserv.chula.ac.th/~pkanchan/html/eap2.h
tm (English for Academic Purposes -Science)
http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/mernst/advice/writ
e-technical-paper.html (Writing a technical paper)
http://infolab.stanford.edu/~widom/paper-writing.html
(tips for writing technical papers)