Transcript Slide 1

EFL Teacher Education 09:
Strategic Interaction - JT
Strategic interaction in the Junior EFL
classroom: Teacher’s perspectives
初中英语课堂策略互动：教师视角
外语研修部
黄军生
May 25, 2009
[email protected]
Orientation …
Today’s topics:



Rationale for strategic interaction
Understanding language learning strategies
Exploring the interactive integration:
Learning strategies in the ECS
Learning strategies integrated in textbooks
Learner knowledge & strategy use
Strategies as goal-driven actions
Strategies as task-focused actions
Strategies as situated actions

Conclusion
Elements involved in today’s seminar:
Theme: Strategic interaction
Elements:
 Language learning strategy (LLS) theories
 The new English Curriculum Standards (ECS) (MOE, 2001, 2003)
 Research data
 Textbook analyses
 My interpretations based on research, practice, and experience
 My suggestions for the Junior EFL classroom instruction
A story of a strategic learner
(A successful EFL learner)
Initial stage:
“Interest is my best teacher.” (The learner recalled)
“Compared with Chinese, English is in reverse order.” (Father)
Junior:
A chant taught in his first English lesson:
“One two three four five, once I caught a fish alive.
Three four five six seven, but this fish slipped off my hand.” (Teacher)
3 findings: (1) Not always in reverse order;
(2) Rhymes (e.g., five, alive);
(3) Fun and interesting like Chinese.
Strategies used by the teacher and the student:
Imitating: e.g., “It’s none of your business. This is a private conversation!”
Repeating: (“… until the teacher smiled.”)
Making Chinese work for English learning:
“Chinese and English are the same at the deepest level”
Chinese can be used “as a bridge” (Learner)
Inducing grammar: e.g., Xiao Ming is driving a car. (“is driving” is the grammar)
Guessing: “Guessing is like playing a jigsaw game.” (Learner)
Taking the “first risk”: Challenging an expert interpreter from an oil company:
“What’s this in English?” (Pointing to a mirror on the wall)
“Oh, it is a mirror.”
Senior: Strategies used by the teacher and the student:
(Knowledge-based learning)
Taking notes: (T wrote all language points on the board; S made a “grammar
book” by pooling together all the notes);
Studying grammar: e.g., The T’s “12-verb rule” (5 “see” – 2 “hear” – 1 “feel” + “let,
make, have, and help”);
Summarizing: “Adding bits and pieces to build up my own English mansion.”
Setting grammatical questions: “Grammar is dead, but language is alive.” (T)
Understanding changes in English: “English changes at 2 levels: words and
sentences.” (The learner)
Understanding grammar: e.g., the principle of simplification;
“A feel for the language – the ability to internalize grammar into a habit”;
“The essential difference between Chinese and English is grammar,
which reflects the differences in thinking and cultures.” (Learner)
Imitating: “A good English learner is a smart imitator.”
“I learned English in the way of studying science and technology.”
Tertiary: Strategies used by the learner & his peers
(Self-access study; the way to G & T – CET4&6, GRE, TOEFL)
Memorizing vocabulary in any possible ways:
- Word formation: 500 roots/affixes/stems
- Keyword strategies: e.g., conundrum “可难琢磨”; issue 问题难不倒“一
休”;
- Using an English dictionary (to understand accurate meanings)
- Memorizing the “Red Book” (“Red Book” + MP3)
- Listening to MP3
English corner (to improve oral English greatly):
“Failure in the dorm; success in the English corner.”
Topic discussions
English debates
Creating an environment for English learning
Using podcast to “sit in” university seminars in the U.S.
“I’m honored to be given a nickname, Mr. Dictionary.”
The story tells us that …
- the learner has his own story of strategy use for English learning.
- he uses strategies at different stages.
- his learning strategies involve not only actions but also knowledge and
beliefs about himself and his learning process.
- his story of strategy use is a mental journey situated in particular
learning cultures and communities and related to others.
- he starts with interest, sustains progress through strategy use, and
achieves the self-regulation, …
… and his story will continue …
1. Rationale for strategic interaction

An example for strategic interaction
Player (Ren’ai, G8a, U1)
“Oh, yes, play … player.”
(Word formation)
“Good, they’re both basketball players (Acting out).”
(Collocation)
(Gesture)
“Yeah, McGrady and Yao Ming are teammates.”
“Teammates?
(Asking for clarification)
“Yes, ‘team’, we all know the word; ‘mate’ … is a
friend, and here, it refers to a player, a basketball
player. So, teammates are players in the same
basketball team. We may have more words, such
as ‘classmate’, ‘roommate’, and ‘workmate’.”
(Word formation)
(Paraphrase)
(Association)
A question for discussion:
Do you have other interpretations for the classroom
interplay between the teacher and the student?
The strategic interaction makes teaching &
learning more meaningful and enjoyable:






facilitating classroom communication;
enabling Ss to learn how to learn and use English;
allowing Ss to become more self-directed;
making Ss undertake more responsibilities for learning;
adding to Ss’ knowledge and skills;
expanding the role of teachers;
Why?
- Contributing to communicative competence

Communicative competence
The ability to make language relevant to the
context and, in turn, sustain the context through
language (Hymes, 1971, 1972)

Grammatical competence
What Chomsky (1957) calls “linguistic competence”;

Sociolinguistic competence
An understanding of the social context in communication;

Discourse competence
The ability to achieve cohesion in form and coherence in thought;

Strategic competence
The ability to use strategies to compensate for limited language
knowledge.
(Canale & Swain, 1980; Canale, 1983)

Strategic interaction
Human interaction, in essence, is strategic interaction,
which starts with the premise that “learning takes
place only when the internal mind can be linked to the
external world.” (Di Pietro, 1987: 10)
2. Understanding learning strategies

Good language learner (GLL) studies
Successful learners’ strategic approaches to language
tasks could provide teachers with guidance in transferring
them to less successful learners (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975;
Naiman et al., 1978) .

7 major GLL strategies
An active task approach;
An awareness of learning styles and strategies;
Willingness to use or practice the language;
A concern for language form;
A concern for meaning;
Monitoring of the learning process;
Management of emotions.
(Based on Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975; Naiman et al., 1978)

A key question
Does strategy use result in learning or
does learning increase learners’ ability to
employ more strategies? (Ellis, 1997)
？

Defining learning strategies
Definition 1: as “specific actions taken by the learner to
make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more selfdirected, more effective, and more transferable to new
situations.” (Oxford, 1990: 8)
Definition 2: as “complex procedures that individuals apply
to tasks; consequently, they may be represented as
procedural knowledge which may be acquired through
cognitive, associative, and autonomous stages of learning.”
(O’Malley & Chamot, 1990: 52)
Definition 3: as “(1) language learning behaviors learners
actually engage in to learn and regulate the learning of a
second language; (2) what learners know about the
strategies they use …; (3) what learners know about
aspects of their language learning …”
(Wenden, 1987: 6-7)
Definition 4: as “actions and steps taken by students to
enhance their learning and development.”
(MOE, 2001: 23; 2003: 18)

Main characteristics of LLS
Both actions and knowledge/beliefs;
Steps taken by Ss to enhance learning;
Both general and specific approaches;
(Strategies, tactics or techniques)
Both direct and indirect procedures;
Goal- and problem-orientated;
Task- and context-dependent;

Classifications
Oxford (1990)
Memory strategies
O’Malley & Chamot (1990)
Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies
ECS (MOE, 2001, 2003)
Cognitive strategies
Resource strategies
Metacognitive strategies
Metacognitive strategies
Social strategies
Social/affective strategies
Controlling strategies
Affective strategies
Compensation strategies
Communication strategies







Memory strategies (for storing and retrieving information)
e.g., using phonological rules; using word lists
Cognitive strategies (for reasoning, analyzing, summarizing, & practicing)
e.g., rehearsal; elaboration
Compensation strategies (for overcoming limitations in knowledge)
e.g., guessing; gestures; code-switching
Metacognitive strategies (for organizing and evaluating learning)
e.g., goal-setting; attention; monitoring while performing a task
Affective strategies (for managing emotions and attitudes)
e.g., relaxation; reward
Social strategies (for learning with others)
e.g., asking for correction; asking for slowness/repetition; self-talk
Resource strategies (for obtaining resources needed in learning)
e.g., using resource and reference books; using audio-video materials
A question for discussion:
Should we explicitly teach our students learning
strategies? Why?
My interpretation:
“Strategy instruction can be a useful way in
terms of the strategic interaction between
teachers and students.”
3. Exploring interactive integration

Learning strategies in the ECS
Overall ECS goal:
“To develop students’ comprehensive competence
of language use.” (MOE, 2001; 2003)
Five specific objectives:
Language knowledge:
Pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, functions, & topics;
Language skills:
Listening, speaking, reading, & writing;
Learning strategies:
Cognitive, controlling, communicative, & resource strategies;
Cultural awareness:
Cultural knowledge and cross-cultural communication;
Affective attitudes:
Interest and motivation, confidence and consistency, cooperation,and
international outlook;
EFL teachers’ training needs
No.
ECS Objectives
Mean
SD
% (Agree/Strongly agree)
N17a
Language knowledge
4.08
.72
82%
N17b
Language skills
4.33
.71
89%
N17c
Learning strategies
4.36
.72
89%
N17d
Cultural awareness
4.14
.84
85%
N17e
Affective attitudes
4.08
.82
82%
A question for discussion:
To what extent are these data presented above
true of you?
My interpretation:
“EFL teachers’ training needs are multidimensional, going
beyond the traditional “double-bases” to involve the new
innovations of learning strategies, cultural awareness and
affective attitudes in the ECS.”
The strategy list in the ECS:
Level-5 strategy list (29 items):
Cognitive strategies (11 items);
Controlling strategies (8 items);
Communicative strategies (6 items);
Resource strategies (4 items)
(MOE, 2001: 24)

Learning strategies integrated in textbooks
Strategies in “Project English” (Ren’ai)
Generally implicit and partly explicit
Discussed in terms of “learning methods”
Associated with learner difficulties
My interpretation:
“Learning strategies emerge from learning goals, learner
needs and difficulties, task performance, and varying
situations.”
An example unit (Ren’ai, G9a, U3):
- Take part in the English corner
Join the English club
- Copy new words in a notebook and take it with you
Copy new words on pieces of paper
- Keep a diary in English
- Listen to/follow the tape
- Sing English songs
- Study grammar
- Read words/texts aloud
- Guess the meanings of the new words
- Get/understand the main idea of the article
- Take a deep breath and smile
- Keep on trying and never give up
- Use new words in sentences
- Do lots of listening practice
- Listen to English radio programs, e.g., the BBC
- Watch English movies/English programs on TV
- Read English newspapers/magazines, e.g., Times English Post
- Find a pen pal on the Internet
- Preview the day’s lesson
- Review English every day
- Retell a story (yourself) / (Self-talk)
- Avoid translating every word while reading
- Use chants, songs and riddles
- Speak English with others as often as possible
- Take notes in class
(24 items)
Strategies in “Go for it” (PEP)
Generally explicit
Embedded in each unit in terms of learning strategies
Integrated to the framework of topics, functions, structure,
and strategies
Related to language tasks and learner difficulties
A strategy list in “Go for it” (PEP):
- Listening for key words
- Listening for specific information
- Using what you know
- Practicing / Practicing conversations with friends
- Memorizing
- Role-playing
- Summarizing
- Self-evaluating
- Using context
- Guessing
- Personalizing (what you learn): e.g., classifying words in your own way
- Inferring vocabulary/Inferring content: e.g., guessing, predicting
- Classifying
- Repeating
- Inducing: e.g., inducing a grammar rule based on specific sentence examples
- Reinforcing
- Scanning
- Reflecting
- Sequencing
- Deducing: e.g., translating a sentence in different ways
- Cooperating
- Transforming information
- Using dictionaries
- Working with others
- Making flashcards ?
- Making vocabulary lists
- Listening to tapes
- Asking the teacher for help
- Watching English videos/movies/ TV programs
- Reading aloud to practice pronunciation
- Using English
- Reading English newspapers and magazines
- Studying grammar
- Joining the English club
- Memorizing the words of pop songs
- Keeping an English notebook / Taking notes
- Asking the teacher questions
- Finding a pen pal / a partner (to practice English with)
- Brainstorming
- Comparing
- Activating your language learning
- Matching
- Knowing different styles of English
- Reading with focus
- Using parts of speech
- Mind-mapping
- Using suitable language
- Having a positive attitude
(48 items)
Strategies in “JEFC” (PEP)
Generally implicit
Embedded in each unit in terms of “Tips”
Eight high-use strategies in the SILL (Huang, 2008: 95; N = 305)
Item
Brief Statement
Mean
SD
Rank
MEM05 Use phonological rules
3.98
1.02
1
COM29
Use synonyms
3.83
.87
2
AFF42
Notice tension
3.77
.93
3
COG10
Say or write new words several times
3.68
.97
4
MET33
Find out how to learn better
3.68
.96
4
COG19
Look for similar words in my native language
3.64
1.01
6
COM24
Guess the unknown
3.56
.90
7
SOC45
Ask for slowness or repetition
3.55
.99
8
Thirteen low-use strategies in the SILL (Huang, 2008: 96; N = 305)
Item
Brief Statement
Mean
SD
Rank
MEM03
Connect sounds and images to remember words
2.42
1.03
39
MEM06
Use word lists or flashcards
2.05
1.17
46
MEM07
Act out words physically
1.77
.91
49
MEM09
Remember new words by location on the page
2.25
.98
42
COG14
Start conversations in English
1.91
.75
47
COG16
Read for pleasure
2.42
.93
39
COG17
Write notes, messages, or letters in English
2.42
1.07
39
COM25
Use gestures
2.25
.96
42
COM26
Make up new words
2.43
1.19
38
MET35
Look for conversation partners
1.79
.75
48
AFF43
Write a learning diary
1.61
.73
50
AFF44
Talk about feelings
2.04
.87
45
SOC47
Practice with others
2.20
.86
44
Distribution of three-level strategy users
(Huang, 2008: 97; N = 305)
Low users
75
25%
High users
13
4%
Medium
users
217
71%
Learner knowledge & strategy use
A case of the use of the “self-talk” strategy:

FGP8: “Whenever I come back from school, I lock myself in my room starting
self-study. Studying alone has both advantages and disadvantages. It
means that you are yourself completely. Nobody knows the mistakes you
make. Nobody discusses questions with you. You may feel dull and bored.
However, studying alone, I enjoy a quiet place, where I can do whatever I
like to (laughing), and try whatever I think. For instance, I can make up an
English story in my mind, but I may not have enough courage to say it out
in public. But when I stay alone, I can say it out baldly to my ‘audience’ of
dolls, tables, and chairs. I like literature and tried to make up stories in
English. I moved tables and chairs over as my audience, and I was the
speaker, speaking to them. I’m the only child in my family, having nobody
and nothing to play with. In so doing, I just treat it as a recreation as well.”
(Huang, 2008: 127)
Rosa’s knowledge and strategy use
Knowledge & beliefs
Strategy use
As we can see, English native speakers pay less attention
to grammar in their daily lives ... However, our teachers
“Exercise-stuffed methods”
and students show a great deal of concern for it (grammar).
Why? Because it is chiefly tested in exams. Now we still
want to strive for prospects of success through exams.
(Huang, 2008: 149)
“A good memory is not as reliable as a broken pen.”
Finding errors, I try to classify them, making clear why I
get them wrong: either in thinking or in types … it’s also
possible to be wrong in the usage of a phrase or in
grammar. I mark, copy, and finally make them an errornotebook. I’ll use it in the future revision. (Huang, 2008: 150)
“Gain the new knowledge by reviewing the old”
(Confucius, The Analects)
Note-taking strategy
Error-notebook making
Reviewing

Strategies as goal-driven actions
What goal?
- The grade-getting goal:
Terms marked in the discourse: “grades”, “marks”, “scores”; “exams”,
“tests”, “quizzes”, “dictations (as a quiz)”, “mock tests” …
“I’m learning English for the sake of exams.”
(Huang, 2008: 128)
Test-taking strategies
Question-focused reading
Question-focused listening
Taking practice tests beforehand
Rule out irrelevant choices
Guessing the unknown
Imitating the model compositions
(Huang, 2008: 129)
Impact of grade-getting goal on strategies
Strategy changes:
e.g., Less risk-taking
Unwilling to ask for help from the teacher
Unwilling to ask questions for clarification
Why?
The teacher is too grade-centered (FGP2) --- (Goal)
I got lower marks (FGP1) --- (Goal)
The lower scores, the weaker self-confidence (FGP7) --- (Affective)
Worry about making errors (FGP7) --- (Affective & ability)
Classmates’ laugh at me (FGP3) --- (Social)
I’d like to save face for myself (FGP47) --- (Social)
No enough words to express ideas (FGP6) --- (Ability)
(Huang, 2008: 129-130)

Strategies as task-focused actions
The same strategy for different tasks
Strategy: Guess meanings from the context
Tasks: Reading comprehension
Listening comprehension
Cloze
(Huang, 2008: 132)
Different strategies for the same task
Task goal setting & strategy use for reading comprehension:
Student
Task goal setting
Strategy use
FGP8
To understand the meanings of words,
sentences, paragraphs, and the text
Bottom-up reading approaches:
Figure out sounds – words – phrases –
sentences – paragraphs – passage;
FGP25
To know about Western cultures
Understand different text forms (genres), such as
stories, scientific articles, news reports,
advertisements, biographies, etc., as
reflections of Western cultures (the strategy
transferred from Chinese learning);
FGP38
To improve reading ability
Scan for the information needed;
Skim for general ideas;
Intensive reading;
FGP46
To know what the passage tells us about
Preview the headings;
Mark key points and key words;
Guess meanings from the context;
Use dictionaries after reading; (Huang, 2008: 131)
Strategies for non-communicative exercises
Example:
Memory:
Resource:
Cognitive:
Strategies for grammar exercises:
Memorize grammar rules
Use grammar/reference books
Learn grammar through teachers’ instruction
Learn grammar through peer discussions
Understand grammar by reading model sentences
Consolidate knowledge by doing exercises
Learn grammar by reading and accumulation
Note-taking
Analyze and use grammar knowledge
Metacognitive: Find out weaknesses and missing points in learning
(Huang, 2008: 133)
Strategies for communicative tasks
Example:
Strategies for role play:
Functional practice strategies:
Act out words
Practice oral English
Find as many ways as possible to use English
Social:
Ask for help from the teacher
Ask for error correction
(Huang, 2008: 133)

Strategies as situated actions
Strategic interaction between teachers and students
The teacher’s instructional impact
Lena’s strategy use
T’s teaching method of sentence making
Using new words in a sentence
T strictly required students to take notes in class
Note-taking
T recommended CCTV9 for listening practice
Watching English TV programs
T’s instruction of language points
Trying to find patterns in English
Feeling anxious and nervous in T’s classes
Relaxing when fearful
T asked me questions almost every lesson
Noticing tension
Asking T and peers for help with unknown
Asking for help from others
Collecting some questions to ask T for help
Asking for clarification or verification
Attending T’s elective courses on English culture
Learning about L2 culture
Trying to be more active in T’s lessons
Using reference books
Lena never concealed her fondness for
the teacher, saying, “Love the teacher, and
believe in the way she teaches.”
(Huang, 2008: 262)
Another student’s comments on her teacher’s methods
FGP2: “Our teacher always teaches us in the same way: teaching
new words and expressions, explaining the text, and then listening
to the text recording, always the same, rarely asking us to perform
actively in class. In my impression, everything could be smoothed
out in class in the same way – memorizing! Dwelling so much on
grammar is but useless. We don’t have that much time for it. We’ve
got piles and piles of assignments to do in maths, physics, and
chemistry every day. Plus English vocabulary, we really can’t spare
time for reading grammar. From my point of view, just no need for
teachers to talk that much about grammar. More examples are
welcome, and it’s easier for us to understand examples.”
(Huang, 2008: 133)
Strategic interaction among students
FGP39: “My partner’s impact on me was so great that
the learning methods used by us were always almost
similar. In particular, both of us seemed to take notes in
class in similar ways.”
(Huang, 2008: 134)
In class, Lena tried to take every possible opportunity to
listen to other students. Below, she explained the
rationale:
“They speak English only in class. Listening to others, I
follow them and speak to myself. This is equally the
same as listening to myself once again, so as to check
where is my weakness.” (Huang, 2008: 261)
Reading aloud in a dormitory learning community:
FGP2: “Speaking of reading aloud, to be honest, I like
that pleasant feeling of reading texts aloud very much.
Every time we felt utterly exhausted from working on
maths, physics and chemistry, we always put all our
hopes for refreshing ourselves on our chorus recitation
next morning though we all slept very late tired at
midnight. Next morning, all of our 8 roommates had a lot
fun to recite English or Chinese texts together, fighting to
see who was able to read loudest and most fluently, […]
until hoarse voices …” (Huang, 2008: 135)
Strategic interaction between family and students
FGP6: “I’m always feeling I haven’t learned enough
vocabulary to express myself whenever I stand up to
speak English. I’m just afraid of making mistakes.”
FGP3: “Oh, that’s not my case. I’ve never been afraid of
making errors. This might be attributed to my family
education practice. My mum always said to me that ‘your
classmates might laugh at your English mistakes you’ve
potentially made when you stand up to speak English.
However, if you were reluctant to stand up, you would
have already completely been defeated by yourself’ …”
(Huang, 2008: 135)

Conclusion
(1) Learning strategies are integrated into the ECS as a
curriculum goal, and strategy use contributes to the
development of students’ comprehensive competence of
language use.
(Strategic interaction with the curriculum)
(2) Learning strategies are explicitly or implicitly embedded
in different textbook series, and strategy use makes
classroom teaching and learning more meaningful and
enjoyable.
(Strategic interaction with textbooks)
(3) Strategy use is based on the learner’s knowledge
and beliefs, and in turn enhances the development of
knowledge and skills.
(Strategic interaction within the learner)
(4) Strategy use is motivated by learning goals, aiming to
achieve learning goals in the process of English teaching
and learning.
(Strategic interaction with learning goals)
(5) Learning strategies are the learner’s specific approaches
to L2 tasks in particular situations, and the nature of tasks
has crucial impact on strategy choice and use.
(Strategic interaction with learning tasks)
(6) Strategic interaction occurs between teachers and
students, students and their peers, and students and their
family members in ever-changing contexts.
(Strategic interaction with others)

A quotation
“Studying hard is not the same thing as
studying smart.”
(Weinstein & Hume, 1998: 67-68).
Thank you!!!

References
Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J.
Richards & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and Communication. (pp. 2-27). London: Longman.
Canale, M. & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language
teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1 (1), 1-47.
Di Pietro, R. J. (1987). Strategic Interaction: Learning Languages through Scenarios. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1997). Second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Greenlaw, J., & Wang, D. (Eds.). (2004-2006). Project English. Changsha: Hunan Education Press.
Huang, J. S. (2008). Interactive integration: English language learning strategies, styles, and tasks in a
school in Fujian. Unpublished PhD thesis, Hong Kong: The University of Hong Kong.
Hymes, D. (1971). On communicative competence. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics
(pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books.
Naiman, N., Frohlich, M., Stern, H. H. & Todesco, A. (1978). The Good Language Learner (Research
in Education Series 7). Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE) Press.
Nunan, D. (2005). Go for it! Beijing: The People’s Education Press.
O’Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York:
Newbury House Publishers.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the "good language learner" can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9 (1), 41-51.
Stern, H.H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Language
Review, 31 (4), 304-318.
Weinstein, C. E., & Hume, L. M. (1998). Study Strategies for Lifelong Learning. Washington, D. C.:
American Psychological Association.
Wenden, A. L. (1987). Conceptual background and utility. In A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner
strategies in language learning (pp. 3–13). New York: Prentice Hall.
教育部（MOE），（2001），《英语课程标准（实验稿）》，北京：北京师范大学出版社。
教育部（MOE），（2003），《普通高中英语课程标准（实验）》，北京：人民教育出版社。
Next seminar
Strategic interaction: Integrating/Designing learning
strategies into junior English textbooks
策略互动：初中英语教材的学习策略设计与整合
Questions & answers ?